剑桥英语初级语法练习题 23章练习 24章练习 23章练习 23-1 Do you work in the evenings? Where are they going? Why are you looking at me? Does Bill live near you? Do you like cooking? Is the sun shining? What time does the shops close? -> What time do the shops close? Are Maria working today? -> Is Maria working today? What does this word mean? Are you feeling all right? 23-2 Tome doesn't work at weekends. I'm very tired. I don't want to go out this evening. I'm very tired. I am not going out this evening. Gary isn't working this week. He's on holiday. My parents are usually at home. They don't go out ver often. Nocole has travelled a lot, but she doesn't speak any foreign language. You can turn off the television. I am not watching it. Liz has invited us to her party next week, but we aren't going. 23-3 Where were your shoes made? Did you go out last night? What were you doing at 10.30? Where was your mother born? Has Barbara gone home? What time did she go? When were these houses built? Have Steve arrived yet? -> Has Steve arrived yet? Why did you go home early? How long have they been married? 23-4: Joe has lost his passport. The bridge was built ten years ago. Have you finished your work yet? This town is always clean. The streets are cleaned every day. Where were you born? I have just made some coffee. Would you like some? Glass was made from sand. -> Glass is made from sand. This is a very old photograph. It was taken a long time ago. David has bought a new car. 23-5 I'm going to take an umbrella with me. It's raining. Why are you so tired? Did you go to bed late last night? Where are the chocolate? Have you eaten them all? -> eaten How is your new job? Are you enjoying it? My car was badly damaged in the accident, but I was OK. Chris has got a car, but she doesn't use it very often. Mary isn't at home. She has gone away for a few days. I don't understand the problem. Can you explain it again? Martin is in his room. She's listening to music. I don't know how to say this word. How is it pronouncing? -> pronounced How do you open this window? Can you show me? 24章练习 24-1 make made cut cut get got bring bought pay paid enjoy enjoyed buy bought sit sit -> sat leave left happen happen -> happened hear heard put put catch caught watch watched understand understood 24-2 break broke broken begin began begun eat ate eaten drink drunk droken -> drank drunk drive drove driven speak spoke spoken write wrote writen -> written come came come know knew known take took taken go went gone give gave given throw threw thrown forget forgot forgeten -> forgotten 24-3 I washed my hands because they were dirty.(wash) Somebody has broken this window.(break) I feel good. I slept very well last night.(sleep) Wee saw a really good film yesterday.(see) It rained a lot while we were on holiday.(rain) I've lost my bag.(lose) Have you seen it?(see) Rosa's bicycle was stolen last week.(steal) I went to bed early because I was tired.(go) Have you finished your work yet?(finish) The shopping centre was built about 20 years ago.(build) Anna had learned to drive when she was 18.(learn) -> learned/learnt I've never riden a horse.(ride) -> ridden Julia is a good friend of mine. I've known her for a long time.(know) Yesterday I fell and hurt my leg.(fall/hurt) My brother ran in the London Marathon last year. Have you ever run in a marathon.(run/run) 24-4 I have made some coffee. Would you like some? (make) Have you took John about your new job? (tell) -> told We played basketball on Sunday. We didn't play very well. but we won the game. (win) I know Gary, but I've never met his wife.(meet) We were waken up by loud music in the middle of the night. (wake up) -> wake woke woken Stephanie jumped into the river and swimmed to the other side. (swim) -> swim swam swum 'Did you like the film?' 'Yes, I thought it was very good.' (think) Many different languages are spoken in the Philippines.(speak) Our holiday cost a lot of money because we stayed in a expensive hotel.(cost) Have you ever driven a very fast car? (drive) All the tickets for the concert were sold very quickly.(sell) A bird flu in through the open window while we were having out dinner.(fly) -> fly flew flown

JSONPATH语法 JSONPath Syntax JSONPath notation Filters Examples Considerations for JSONPath expressions that return multiple elements FAQ See Also JSONPath Syntax 文档原文地址： https://support.smartbear.com/alertsite/docs/monitors/api/endpoint/jsonpath.html#filters Last modified on November 22, 2021 JSONPath is a query language for JSON, similar to XPath for XML. AlertSite API endpoint monitors let you use JSONPath in assertions to specify the JSON fields that need to be verified. JSONPath notation A JSONPath expression specifies a path to an element (or a set of elements) in a JSON structure. Paths can use the dot notation: $.store.book[0].title or the bracket notation: $['store']['book'][0]['title'] or a mix of dot and bracket notations: $['store'].book[0].title Note that dots are only used before property names not in brackets. The leading $ represents the root object or array and can be omitted. For example, $.foo.bar and foo.bar are the same, and so are $[0].status and [0].status. Other syntax elements are described below. Expression Description $ The root object or array. .*property* Selects the specified property in a parent object. ['*property*'] Selects the specified property in a parent object. Be sure to put single quotes around the property name.Tip: Use this notation if the property name contains special characters such as spaces, or begins with a character other than A..Za..z_. [*n*] Selects the n-th element from an array. Indexes are 0-based. [*index1*,*index2*,*…*] Selects array elements with the specified indexes. Returns a list. ..*property* Recursive descent: Searches for the specified property name recursively and returns an array of all values with this property name. Always returns a list, even if just one property is found. * Wildcard selects all elements in an object or an array, regardless of their names or indexes. For example, address.* means all properties of the address object, and book[*] means all items of the book array. [*start*:*end*] [*start*:] Selects array elements from the start index and up to, but not including, end index. If end is omitted, selects all elements from start until the end of the array. Returns a list. [:*n*] Selects the first n elements of the array. Returns a list. [*-n*:] Selects the last n elements of the array. Returns a list. [?(*expression*)] Filter expression. Selects all elements in an object or array that match the specified filter. Returns a list. [(*expression*)] Script expressions can be used instead of explicit property names or indexes. An example is [(@.length-1)] which selects the last item in an array. Here, length refers to the length of the current array rather than a JSON field named length. @ Used in filter expressions to refer to the current node being processed. Notes: JSONPath expressions, including property names and values, are case-sensitive. Unlike XPath, JSONPath does not have operations for accessing parent or sibling nodes from the given node. Filters Filters are logical expressions used to filter arrays. An example of a JSONPath expression with a filter is $.store.book[?(@.price < 10)] where @ represents the current array item or object being processed. Filters can also use $ to refer to the properties outside of the current object: $.store.book[?(@.price < $.expensive)] An expression that specifies just a property name, such as [?(@.isbn)], matches all items that have this property, regardless of the value. Below are the operators that can be used in filters. Supported operators depend on the monitor playback engine. Operator Description == Equals to. String values must be enclosed in single quotes (not double quotes): [?(@.color=='red')].Note: Number to string comparison works differently depending on the playback engine. In TestEngine, 1 does not equal '1'. In ReadyAPI 1.9 and earlier, 1 equals '1'. != Not equal to. String values must be enclosed in single quotes: [?(@.color!='red')]. > Greater than. >= Greater than or equal to. < Less than. <= Less than or equal to. =~ Matches a JavaScript regular expression. For example, [?(@.description =~ /cat.*/i)] matches items whose description starts with cat (case-insensitive).Note: Not supported if ReadyAPI 1.1 is used as the playback engine. ! Used to negate a filter: [?(!@.isbn)] matches items that do not have the isbn property.Note: Not supported if ReadyAPI 1.1 is used as the playback engine. && Logical AND, used to combine multiple filter expressions:[?(@.category=='fiction' && @.price < 10)] || Logical OR, used to combine multiple filter expressions:[?(@.category=='fiction' || @.price < 10)]Note: Not supported if ReadyAPI 1.1 is used as the playback engine. in Checks if the left-side value is present in the right-side list. Similar to the SQL IN operator. String comparison is case-sensitive.[?(@.size in ['M', 'L'])] [?('S' in @.sizes)]Note: Supported only by the TestEngine playback engine. nin Opposite of in. Checks that the left-side value is not present in the right-side list. String comparison is case-sensitive.[?(@.size nin ['M', 'L'])] [?('S' nin @.sizes)]Note: Supported only by the TestEngine playback engine. subsetof Checks if the left-side array is a subset of the right-side array. The actual order of array items does not matter. String comparison is case-sensitive. An empty left-side array always matches.For example:[?(@.sizes subsetof ['M', 'L'])] – matches if sizes is ['M'] or ['L'] or ['L', 'M'] but does not match if the array has any other elements.[?(['M', 'L'] subsetof @.sizes)] – matches if sizes contains at least 'M' and 'L'.Note: Supported only by the TestEngine playback engine. contains Checks if a string contains the specified substring (case-sensitive), or an array contains the specified element.[?(@.name contains 'Alex')] [?(@.numbers contains 7)] [?('ABCDEF' contains @.character)]Note: Supported only by the TestEngine playback engine. size Checks if an array or string has the specified length.[?(@.name size 4)]Note: Supported only by the TestEngine playback engine. empty true Matches an empty array or string.[?(@.name empty true)]Note: Supported only by the TestEngine playback engine. empty false Matches a non-empty array or string.[?(@.name empty false)]Note: Supported only by the TestEngine playback engine. Examples For these examples, we will use a modified version of JSON from http://goessner.net/articles/JsonPath/index.html#e3: { "store": { "book": [ { "category": "reference", "author": "Nigel Rees", "title": "Sayings of the Century", "price": 8.95 }, { "category": "fiction", "author": "Herman Melville", "title": "Moby Dick", "isbn": "0-553-21311-3", "price": 8.99 }, { "category": "fiction", "author": "J.R.R. Tolkien", "title": "The Lord of the Rings", "isbn": "0-395-19395-8", "price": 22.99 } ], "bicycle": { "color": "red", "price": 19.95 } }, "expensive": 10 } In all these examples, the leading $. is optional and can be omitted. Expression Meaning $.store.* All direct properties of store (not recursive). $.store.bicycle.color The color of the bicycle in the store.Result: red $.store..price $..price The prices of all items in the store.Result: [8.95, 8.99, 22.99, 19.95] $.store.book[*] $..book[*] All books in the store. $..book[*].title The titles of all books in the store.Result: [Sayings of the Century,Moby Dick,The Lord of the Rings] $..book[0] The first book.Result:[ { "category":"reference", "author":"Nigel Rees", "title":"Sayings of the Century", "price":8.95 } ] $..book[0].title The title of the first book.Result: Sayings of the Century $..book[0,1].title $..book[:2].title The titles of the first two books.Result: [Sayings of the Century, Moby Dick] $..book[-1:].title $..book[(@.length-1)].title The title of the last book.Result: [The Lord of the Rings]The result is a list, because [*-n*:] always returns lists. $..book[?(@.author=='J.R.R. Tolkien')].title The titles of all books by J.R.R. Tolkien (exact match, case-sensitive).Result: [The Lord of the Rings]The result is a list, because filters always return lists. $..book[?(@.isbn)] All books that have the isbn property. $..book[?(!@.isbn)] All books without the isbn property. $..book[?(@.price < 10)] All books cheaper than 10. $..book[?(@.price > $.expensive)] All expensive books. $..book[?(@.author =~ /.*Tolkien/i)] All books whose author name ends with Tolkien (case-insensitive). $..book[?(@.category == 'fiction' ||@.category == 'reference')] All fiction and reference books. $..* All members of the JSON structure beneath the root (child objects, individual property values, array items), combined into an array. Considerations for JSONPath expressions that return multiple elements JSONPath queries can return not just a single element, but also a list of matching elements. For example, given this JSON: { "name": "Rose Kolodny", "phoneNumbers": [ { "type": "home", "number": "954-555-1234" }, { "type": "work", "number": "754-555-5678" } ] } the JSONPath expression phoneNumbers[*].number returns a list containing two phone numbers: [954-555-1234, 754-555-5678] Note that this is not a JSON array, it is just a comma-separated list of items where [ ] indicates the beginning and end of the list. When using “equals” assertions against a list of matches, specify a list of expected values enclosed in [ ] and separated by a comma and one space: [apples, 15, false, ["foo","bar"], {"status":"ok"}] Standalone strings (like apples) should not have enclosing quotes, unless the quotes are part of the value. [Example](javascript:ShowExample("IDM5MMQY3TEHZ3II3HWNFO25ANWOEHQ3ZZ4JJWGOGW5P4BFEH421SP_id", "IDM5MMQY3TEHZ3II3HWNFO25ANWOEHQ3ZZ4JJWGOGW5P4BFEH421SP_div")) Values that are JSON arrays and objects keep inner quotes, but are minified with no spaces between their items: ["foo","bar"], not [ "foo" , "bar" ]. FAQ How can I check that my JSONPath syntax is valid? If you have ReadyAPI 1.9, you can create a test for your API endpoint, add a JSONPath Match assertion and test the syntax in the assertion editor there. Otherwise, you can use http://jsonpath.herokuapp.com and check the results on the Jayway tab. However, the syntax used on this site may be slightly different from the one used in AlertSite. See Also API Assertions Creating an API Endpoint Monitor API Endpoint Monitor Settings

CKS练习题 Pre Setup 第一题：Contexts 问题 解答1 解答2 第二题： Runtime Security with Falco 问题 解答： Use Falco as service Eliminate offending Pods Use Falco from command line Create logs in correct format Local falco rules 第三题： Apiserver Security 问题 解答 第四题： Pod Security Standard 问题 解答 第五题： CIS Benchmark 问题 解答 Number 1 Number 2 Number 3 Number 4 第六题： Verify Platform Binaries 问题 解答 第七题： Open Policy Agent 问题 解答 第八题： Secure Kubernetes Dashboard 问题 解答 第九题： AppArmor Profile 解答 Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 第十题： Container Runtime Sandbox gVisor 问题 解答 第十一题： Secrets in ETCD 问题 解答 第十二题： Hack Secrets 问题 解答 第十三题： Restrict access to Metadata Server 问题 解答 第十四题： Syscall Activity 问题 解答 第十五题： Configure TLS on Ingress 问题 解答 Investigate Implement own TLS certificate 第十六题： Docker Image Attack Surface 问题 解答 第十七题： Audit Log Policy 问题 解答 第十八题： Investigate Break-in via Audit Log 问题 解答 第十九题： Immutable Root FileSystem 问题： 解答 第二十题： Update Kubernetes 问题 解决 Control Plane Master Components Control Plane kubelet and kubectl Data Plane 第二十一题： Image Vulnerability Scanning 问题 解答 第二十二题： Manual Static Security Analysis 问题 解答 Number 1 Number 2 Number 3 Pre Setup Once you've gained access to your terminal it might be wise to spend ~1 minute to setup your environment. You could set these: alias k=kubectl # will already be pre-configured export do="--dry-run=client -o yaml" # k create deploy nginx --image=nginx $do export now="--force --grace-period 0" # k delete pod x $now The following settings will already be configured in your real exam environment in ~/.vimrc. But it can never hurt to be able to type these down: set tabstop=2 set expandtab set shiftwidth=2 More setup suggestions are in the tips section. 第一题：Contexts 问题 Task weight: 1% You have access to multiple clusters from your main terminal through kubectlcontexts. Write all context names into  /opt/course/1/contexts, one per line. From the kubeconfig extract the certificate of user restricted@infra-prodand write it decoded to /opt/course/1/cert. 解答1 kubectl config get-contexts -o name > /opt/course/1/contexts kubectl config view --raw -o jsonpath='{.users[?(@name == "restricted@infra-prod")].user.client-certificate-data}' | base64 -d > /opt/course/1/cert 解答2 Answer: Maybe the fastest way is just to run: k config get-contexts # copy by hand k config get-contexts -o name > /opt/course/1/contexts Or using jsonpath: k config view -o jsonpath="{.contexts[*].name}" k config view -o jsonpath="{.contexts[*].name}" | tr " " "\n" # new lines k config view -o jsonpath="{.contexts[*].name}" | tr " " "\n" > /opt/course/1/contexts The content could then look like: # /opt/course/1/contexts gianna@infra-prod infra-prod restricted@infra-prod workload-prod workload-stage For the certificate we could just run k config view --raw And copy it manually. Or we do: k config view --raw -ojsonpath="{.users[2].user.client-certificate-data}" | base64 -d > /opt/course/1/cert Or even: k config view --raw -ojsonpath="{.users[?(.name == 'restricted@infra-prod')].user.client-certificate-data}" | base64 -d > /opt/course/1/cert # /opt/course/1/cert -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE----- MIIDHzCCAgegAwIBAgIQN5Qe/Rj/PhaqckEI23LPnjANBgkqhkiG9w0BAQsFADAV MRMwEQYDVQQDEwprdWJlcm5ldGVzMB4XDTIwMDkyNjIwNTUwNFoXDTIxMDkyNjIw NTUwNFowKjETMBEGA1UEChMKcmVzdHJpY3RlZDETMBEGA1UEAxMKcmVzdHJpY3Rl ZDCCASIwDQYJKoZIhvcNAQEBBQADggEPADCCAQoCggEBAL/Jaf/QQdijyJTWIDij qa5p4oAh+xDBX3jR9R0G5DkmPU/FgXjxej3rTwHJbuxg7qjTuqQbf9Fb2AHcVtwH gUjC12ODUDE+nVtap+hCe8OLHZwH7BGFWWscgInZOZW2IATK/YdqyQL5OKpQpFkx iAknVZmPa2DTZ8FoyRESboFSTZj6y+JVA7ot0pM09jnxswstal9GZLeqioqfFGY6 YBO/Dg4DDsbKhqfUwJVT6Ur3ELsktZIMTRS5By4Xz18798eBiFAHvgJGq1TTwuPM EhBfwYwgYbalL8DSHeFrelLBKgciwUKjr1lolnnuc1vhkX1peV1J3xrf6o2KkyMc lY0CAwEAAaNWMFQwDgYDVR0PAQH/BAQDAgWgMBMGA1UdJQQMMAoGCCsGAQUFBwMC MAwGA1UdEwEB/wQCMAAwHwYDVR0jBBgwFoAUPrspZIWR7YMN8vT5DF3s/LvpxPQw DQYJKoZIhvcNAQELBQADggEBAIDq0Zt77gXI1s+uW46zBw4mIWgAlBLl2QqCuwmV kd86eH5bD0FCtWlb6vGdcKPdFccHh8Z6z2LjjLu6UoiGUdIJaALhbYNJiXXi/7cf M7sqNOxpxQ5X5hyvOBYD1W7d/EzPHV/lcbXPUDYFHNqBYs842LWSTlPQioDpupXp FFUQPxsenNXDa4TbmaRvnK2jka0yXcqdiXuIteZZovp/IgNkfmx2Ld4/Q+Xlnscf CFtWbjRa/0W/3EW/ghQ7xtC7bgcOHJesoiTZPCZ+dfKuUfH6d1qxgj6Jwt0HtyEf QTQSc66BdMLnw5DMObs4lXDo2YE6LvMrySdXm/S7img5YzU= -----END CERTIFICATE----- 第二题： Runtime Security with Falco 问题 Task weight: 4% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod Falco is installed with default configuration on node cluster1-node1. Connect using ssh cluster1-node1. Use it to: Find a Pod running image nginx which creates unwanted package management processes inside its container. Find a Pod running image httpd which modifies /etc/passwd. Save the Falco logs for case 1 under /opt/course/2/falco.log in format: time-with-nanosconds,container-id,container-name,user-name No other information should be in any line. Collect the logs for at least 30 seconds. Afterwards remove the threads (both 1 and 2) by scaling the replicas of the Deployments that control the offending Pods down to 0. 解答： Use Falco as service First we can investigate Falco config a little: ➜ ssh cluster1-node1 ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# service falco status ● falco.service - LSB: Falco syscall activity monitoring agent Loaded: loaded (/etc/init.d/falco; generated) Active: active (running) since Sat 2020-10-10 06:36:15 UTC; 2h 1min ago ... ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# cd /etc/falco ➜ root@cluster1-node1:/etc/falco# ls falco.yaml falco_rules.local.yaml falco_rules.yaml k8s_audit_rules.yaml rules.available rules.d This is the default configuration, if we look into falco.yaml we can see: # /etc/falco/falco.yaml ... # Where security notifications should go. # Multiple outputs can be enabled. syslog_output: enabled: true ... This means that Falco is writing into syslog, hence we can do: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# cat /var/log/syslog | grep falco Sep 15 08:44:04 ubuntu2004 falco: Falco version 0.29.1 (driver version 17f5df52a7d9ed6bb12d3b1768460def8439936d) Sep 15 08:44:04 ubuntu2004 falco: Falco initialized with configuration file /etc/falco/falco.yaml Sep 15 08:44:04 ubuntu2004 falco: Loading rules from file /etc/falco/falco_rules.yaml: ... Yep, quite some action going on in there. Let's investigate the first offending Pod: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# cat /var/log/syslog | grep falco | grep nginx | grep process Sep 16 06:23:47 ubuntu2004 falco: 06:23:47.376241377: Error Package management process launched in container (user=root user_loginuid=-1 command=apk container_id=7a5ea6a080d1 container_name=nginx image=docker.io/library/nginx:1.19.2-alpine) ... ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl ps -id 7a5ea6a080d1 CONTAINER ID IMAGE NAME ... POD ID 7a5ea6a080d1b 6f715d38cfe0e nginx ... 7a864406b9794 root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl pods -id 7a864406b9794 POD ID ... NAME NAMESPACE ... 7a864406b9794 ... webapi-6cfddcd6f4-ftxg4 team-blue ... First Pod is webapi-6cfddcd6f4-ftxg4 in Namespace team-blue. ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# cat /var/log/syslog | grep falco | grep httpd | grep passwd Sep 16 06:23:48 ubuntu2004 falco: 06:23:48.830962378: Error File below /etc opened for writing (user=root user_loginuid=-1 command=sed -i $d /etc/passwd parent=sh pcmdline=sh -c echo hacker >> /etc/passwd; sed -i '$d' /etc/passwd; true file=/etc/passwdngFmAl program=sed gparent=<NA> ggparent=<NA> gggparent=<NA> container_id=b1339d5cc2de image=docker.io/library/httpd) ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl ps -id b1339d5cc2de CONTAINER ID IMAGE NAME ... POD ID b1339d5cc2dee f6b40f9f8ad71 httpd ... 595af943c3245 root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl pods -id 595af943c3245 POD ID ... NAME NAMESPACE ... 595af943c3245 ... rating-service-68cbdf7b7-v2p6g team-purple ... Second Pod is rating-service-68cbdf7b7-v2p6g in Namespace team-purple. Eliminate offending Pods The logs from before should allow us to find and "eliminate" the offending Pods: ➜ k get pod -A | grep webapi team-blue webapi-6cfddcd6f4-ftxg4 1/1 Running ➜ k -n team-blue scale deploy webapi --replicas 0 deployment.apps/webapi scaled ➜ k get pod -A | grep rating-service team-purple rating-service-68cbdf7b7-v2p6g 1/1 Running ➜ k -n team-purple scale deploy rating-service --replicas 0 deployment.apps/rating-service scaled Use Falco from command line We can also use Falco directly from command line, but only if the service is disabled: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# service falco stop ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# falco Thu Sep 16 06:33:11 2021: Falco version 0.29.1 (driver version 17f5df52a7d9ed6bb12d3b1768460def8439936d) Thu Sep 16 06:33:11 2021: Falco initialized with configuration file /etc/falco/falco.yaml Thu Sep 16 06:33:11 2021: Loading rules from file /etc/falco/falco_rules.yaml: Thu Sep 16 06:33:11 2021: Loading rules from file /etc/falco/falco_rules.local.yaml: Thu Sep 16 06:33:11 2021: Loading rules from file /etc/falco/k8s_audit_rules.yaml: Thu Sep 16 06:33:12 2021: Starting internal webserver, listening on port 8765 06:33:17.382603204: Error Package management process launched in container (user=root user_loginuid=-1 command=apk container_id=7a5ea6a080d1 container_name=nginx image=docker.io/library/nginx:1.19.2-alpine) ... We can see that rule files are loaded and logs printed afterwards. Create logs in correct format The task requires us to store logs for "unwanted package management processes" in format time,container-id,container-name,user-name. The output from falco shows entries for "Error Package management process launched" in a default format. Let's find the proper file that contains the rule and change it: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# cd /etc/falco/ ➜ root@cluster1-node1:/etc/falco# grep -r "Package management process launched" . ./falco_rules.yaml: Package management process launched in container (user=%user.name user_loginuid=%user.loginuid ➜ root@cluster1-node1:/etc/falco# cp falco_rules.yaml falco_rules.yaml_ori ➜ root@cluster1-node1:/etc/falco# vim falco_rules.yaml Find the rule which looks like this: # Container is supposed to be immutable. Package management should be done in building the image. - rule: Launch Package Management Process in Container desc: Package management process ran inside container condition: > spawned_process and container and user.name != "_apt" and package_mgmt_procs and not package_mgmt_ancestor_procs and not user_known_package_manager_in_container output: > Package management process launched in container (user=%user.name user_loginuid=%user.loginuid command=%proc.cmdline container_id=%container.id container_name=%container.name image=%container.image.repository:%container.image.tag) priority: ERROR tags: [process, mitre_persistence] Should be changed into the required format (在local.yaml文件中覆盖这条规则更好): # Container is supposed to be immutable. Package management should be done in building the image. - rule: Launch Package Management Process in Container desc: Package management process ran inside container condition: > spawned_process and container and user.name != "_apt" and package_mgmt_procs and not package_mgmt_ancestor_procs and not user_known_package_manager_in_container output: > Package management process launched in container %evt.time,%container.id,%container.name,%user.name priority: ERROR tags: [process, mitre_persistence] For all available fields we can check https://falco.org/docs/rules/supported-fields, which should be allowed to open during the exam. Next we check the logs in our adjusted format: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:/etc/falco# falco | grep "Package management" 06:38:28.077150666: Error Package management process launched in container 06:38:28.077150666,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:33.058263010: Error Package management process launched in container 06:38:33.058263010,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:38.068693625: Error Package management process launched in container 06:38:38.068693625,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:43.066159360: Error Package management process launched in container 06:38:43.066159360,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:48.059792139: Error Package management process launched in container 06:38:48.059792139,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:53.063328933: Error Package management process launched in container 06:38:53.063328933,090aad374a0a,nginx,root This looks much better. Copy&paste the output into file /opt/course/2/falco.log on your main terminal. The content should be cleaned like this: # /opt/course/2/falco.log 06:38:28.077150666,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:33.058263010,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:38.068693625,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:43.066159360,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:48.059792139,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:53.063328933,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:38:58.070912841,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:39:03.069592140,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:39:08.064805371,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:39:13.078109098,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:39:18.065077287,090aad374a0a,nginx,root 06:39:23.061012151,090aad374a0a,nginx,root For a few entries it should be fast to just clean it up manually. If there are larger amounts of entries we could do(现将日志重定向保存到/opt/course/2/falco.log.dirty， 然后使用以下命令更快): cat /opt/course/2/falco.log.dirty | cut -d" " -f 9 > /opt/course/2/falco.log Local falco rules There is also a file /etc/falco/falco_rules.local.yaml in which we can override existing default rules. This is a much cleaner solution for production. Choose the faster way for you in the exam if nothing is specified in the task. 第三题： Apiserver Security 问题 Task weight: 3% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod You received a list from the DevSecOps team which performed a security investigation of the k8s cluster1 (workload-prod). The list states the following about the apiserver setup: Accessible through a NodePort Service Change the apiserver setup so that: Only accessible through a ClusterIP Service 解答 In order to modify the parameters for the apiserver, we first ssh into the master node and check which parameters the apiserver process is running with: ➜ ssh cluster1-controlplane1 ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# ps aux | grep kube-apiserver root 27622 7.4 15.3 1105924 311788 ? Ssl 10:31 11:03 kube-apiserver --advertise-address=192.168.100.11 --allow-privileged=true --authorization-mode=Node,RBAC --client-ca-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/ca.crt --enable-admission-plugins=NodeRestriction --enable-bootstrap-token-auth=true --etcd-cafile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt --etcd-certfile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-etcd-client.crt --etcd-keyfile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-etcd-client.key --etcd-servers=https://127.0.0.1:2379 --kubelet-client-certificate=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-kubelet-client.crt --kubelet-client-key=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-kubelet-client.key --kubelet-preferred-address-types=InternalIP,ExternalIP,Hostname --kubernetes-service-node-port=31000 --proxy-client-cert- ... We may notice the following argument: --kubernetes-service-node-port=31000 We can also check the Service and see it's of type NodePort: ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# kubectl get svc NAME TYPE CLUSTER-IP EXTERNAL-IP PORT(S) AGE kubernetes NodePort 10.96.0.1 <none> 443:31000/TCP 5d2h The apiserver runs as a static Pod, so we can edit the manifest. But before we do this we also create a copy in case we mess things up: ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# cp /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-apiserver.yaml ~/3_kube-apiserver.yaml ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# vim /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-apiserver.yaml We should remove the unsecure settings: # /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-apiserver.yaml apiVersion: v1 kind: Pod metadata: annotations: kubeadm.kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver.advertise-address.endpoint: 192.168.100.11:6443 creationTimestamp: null labels: component: kube-apiserver tier: control-plane name: kube-apiserver namespace: kube-system spec: containers: - command: - kube-apiserver - --advertise-address=192.168.100.11 - --allow-privileged=true - --authorization-mode=Node,RBAC - --client-ca-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/ca.crt - --enable-admission-plugins=NodeRestriction - --enable-bootstrap-token-auth=true - --etcd-cafile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt - --etcd-certfile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-etcd-client.crt - --etcd-keyfile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-etcd-client.key - --etcd-servers=https://127.0.0.1:2379 - --kubelet-client-certificate=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-kubelet-client.crt - --kubelet-client-key=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-kubelet-client.key - --kubelet-preferred-address-types=InternalIP,ExternalIP,Hostname # 注释这里，或者设置成0 # - --kubernetes-service-node-port=31000 # delete or set to 0 - --proxy-client-cert-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/front-proxy-client.crt - --proxy-client-key-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/front-proxy-client.key ... Once the changes are made, give the apiserver some time to start up again. Check the apiserver's Pod status and the process parameters: ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# kubectl -n kube-system get pod | grep apiserver kube-apiserver-cluster1-controlplane1 1/1 Running 0 38s ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# ps aux | grep kube-apiserver | grep node-port The apiserver got restarted without the unsecure settings. However, the Service kubernetes will still be of type NodePort: ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# kubectl get svc NAME TYPE CLUSTER-IP EXTERNAL-IP PORT(S) AGE kubernetes NodePort 10.96.0.1 <none> 443:31000/TCP 5d3h We need to delete the Service for the changes to take effect: ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# kubectl delete svc kubernetes service "kubernetes" deleted After a few seconds: ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# kubectl get svc NAME TYPE CLUSTER-IP EXTERNAL-IP PORT(S) AGE kubernetes ClusterIP 10.96.0.1 <none> 443/TCP 6s This should satisfy the DevSecOps team. 第四题： Pod Security Standard 问题 ask weight: 8% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod There is Deployment container-host-hacker in Namespace team-red which mounts /run/containerd as a hostPath volume on the Node where it's running. This means that the Pod can access various data about other containers running on the same Node. To prevent this configure Namespace team-red to enforce the baseline Pod Security Standard. Once completed, delete the Pod of the Deployment mentioned above. Check the ReplicaSet events and write the event/log lines containing the reason why the Pod isn't recreated into /opt/course/4/logs. 解答 Making Namespaces use Pod Security Standards works via labels. We can simply edit it: k edit ns team-red ow we configure the requested label: # kubectl edit namespace team-red apiVersion: v1 kind: Namespace metadata: labels: kubernetes.io/metadata.name: team-red pod-security.kubernetes.io/enforce: baseline # add name: team-red ... This should already be enough for the default Pod Security Admission Controller to pick up on that change. Let's test it and delete the Pod to see if it'll be recreated or fails, it should fail! ➜ k -n team-red get pod NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE container-host-hacker-dbf989777-wm8fc 1/1 Running 0 115s ➜ k -n team-red delete pod container-host-hacker-dbf989777-wm8fc pod "container-host-hacker-dbf989777-wm8fc" deleted ➜ k -n team-red get pod No resources found in team-red namespace. Usually the ReplicaSet of a Deployment would recreate the Pod if deleted, here we see this doesn't happen. Let's check why: ➜ k -n team-red get rs NAME DESIRED CURRENT READY AGE container-host-hacker-dbf989777 1 0 0 5m25s ➜ k -n team-red describe rs container-host-hacker-dbf989777 Name: container-host-hacker-dbf989777 Namespace: team-red ... Events: Type Reason Age From Message ---- ------ ---- ---- ------- ... Warning FailedCreate 2m41s replicaset-controller Error creating: pods "container-host-hacker-dbf989777-bjwgv" is forbidden: violates PodSecurity "baseline:latest": hostPath volumes (volume "containerdata") Warning FailedCreate 2m2s (x9 over 2m40s) replicaset-controller (combined from similar events): Error creating: pods "container-host-hacker-dbf989777-kjfpn" is forbidden: violates PodSecurity "baseline:latest": hostPath volumes (volume "containerdata") There we go! Finally we write the reason into the requested file so that Mr Scoring will be happy too! # /opt/course/4/logs Warning FailedCreate 2m2s (x9 over 2m40s) replicaset-controller (combined from similar events): Error creating: pods "container-host-hacker-dbf989777-kjfpn" is forbidden: violates PodSecurity "baseline:latest": hostPath volumes (volume "containerdata") od Security Standards can give a great base level of security! But when one finds themselves wanting to deeper adjust the levels like baseline or restricted... this isn't possible and 3rd party solutions like OPA could be looked at. 第五题： CIS Benchmark 问题 Task weight: 3% Use context: kubectl config use-context infra-prod You're ask to evaluate specific settings of cluster2 against the CIS Benchmark recommendations. Use the tool kube-bench which is already installed on the nodes. Connect using ssh cluster2-controlplane1 and ssh cluster2-node1. On the master node ensure (correct if necessary) that the CIS recommendations are set for: The--profiling` argument of the kube-controller-manager The ownership of directory /var/lib/etcd On the worker node ensure (correct if necessary) that the CIS recommendations are set for: The permissions of the kubelet configuration /var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml The --client-ca-file argument of the kubelet 解答 Number 1 First we ssh into the master node run kube-bench against the master components: ➜ ssh cluster2-controlplane1 ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# kube-bench run --targets=master ... == Summary == 41 checks PASS 13 checks FAIL 11 checks WARN 0 checks INFO We see some passes, fails and warnings. Let's check the required task (1) of the controller manager: ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# kube-bench run --targets=master | grep kube-controller -A 3 1.3.1 Edit the Controller Manager pod specification file /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-controller-manager.yaml on the master node and set the --terminated-pod-gc-threshold to an appropriate threshold, for example: --terminated-pod-gc-threshold=10 -- 1.3.2 Edit the Controller Manager pod specification file /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-controller-manager.yaml on the master node and set the below parameter. --profiling=false 1.3.6 Edit the Controller Manager pod specification file /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-controller-manager.yaml on the master node and set the --feature-gates parameter to include RotateKubeletServerCertificate=true. --feature-gates=RotateKubeletServerCertificate=true There we see 1.3.2 which suggests to set --profiling=false, so we obey: ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# vim /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-controller-manager.yaml Edit the corresponding line: # /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-controller-manager.yaml apiVersion: v1 kind: Pod metadata: creationTimestamp: null labels: component: kube-controller-manager tier: control-plane name: kube-controller-manager namespace: kube-system spec: containers: - command: - kube-controller-manager - --allocate-node-cidrs=true - --authentication-kubeconfig=/etc/kubernetes/controller-manager.conf - --authorization-kubeconfig=/etc/kubernetes/controller-manager.conf - --bind-address=127.0.0.1 - --client-ca-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/ca.crt - --cluster-cidr=10.244.0.0/16 - --cluster-name=kubernetes - --cluster-signing-cert-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/ca.crt - --cluster-signing-key-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/ca.key - --controllers=*,bootstrapsigner,tokencleaner - --kubeconfig=/etc/kubernetes/controller-manager.conf - --leader-elect=true - --node-cidr-mask-size=24 - --port=0 - --requestheader-client-ca-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/front-proxy-ca.crt - --root-ca-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/ca.crt - --service-account-private-key-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/sa.key - --service-cluster-ip-range=10.96.0.0/12 - --use-service-account-credentials=true - --profiling=false # add ... We wait for the Pod to restart, then run kube-bench again to check if the problem was solved: ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# kube-bench run --targets=master | grep kube-controller -A 3 1.3.1 Edit the Controller Manager pod specification file /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-controller-manager.yaml on the master node and set the --terminated-pod-gc-threshold to an appropriate threshold, for example: --terminated-pod-gc-threshold=10 -- 1.3.6 Edit the Controller Manager pod specification file /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-controller-manager.yaml on the master node and set the --feature-gates parameter to include RotateKubeletServerCertificate=true. --feature-gates=RotateKubeletServerCertificate=true Problem solved and 1.3.2 is passing: root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# kube-bench run --targets=master | grep 1.3.2 [PASS] 1.3.2 Ensure that the --profiling argument is set to false (Scored) Number 2 Next task (2) is to check the ownership of directory /var/lib/etcd, so we first have a look: ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# ls -lh /var/lib | grep etcd drwx------ 3 root root 4.0K Sep 11 20:08 etcd ooks like user root and group root. Also possible to check using: ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# stat -c %U:%G /var/lib/etcd root:root But what has kube-bench to say about this? ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# kube-bench run --targets=master | grep "/var/lib/etcd" -B5 1.1.12 On the etcd server node, get the etcd data directory, passed as an argument --data-dir, from the below command: ps -ef | grep etcd Run the below command (based on the etcd data directory found above). For example, chown etcd:etcd /var/lib/etcd To comply we run the following: ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# chown etcd:etcd /var/lib/etcd ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# ls -lh /var/lib | grep etcd drwx------ 3 etcd etcd 4.0K Sep 11 20:08 etcd This looks better. We run kube-bench again, and make sure test 1.1.12. is passing. ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# kube-bench run --targets=master | grep 1.1.12 [PASS] 1.1.12 Ensure that the etcd data directory ownership is set to etcd:etcd (Scored) Done. Number 3 To continue with number (3), we'll head to the worker node and ensure that the kubelet configuration file has the minimum necessary permissions as recommended: ➜ ssh cluster2-node1 ➜ root@cluster2-node1:~# kube-bench run --targets=node ... == Summary == 13 checks PASS 10 checks FAIL 2 checks WARN 0 checks INFO Also here some passes, fails and warnings. We check the permission level of the kubelet config file: ➜ root@cluster2-node1:~# stat -c %a /var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml 777 777 is highly permissive access level and not recommended by the kube-bench guidelines: ➜ root@cluster2-node1:~# kube-bench run --targets=node | grep /var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml -B2 4.1.9 Run the following command (using the config file location identified in the Audit step) chmod 644 /var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml We obey and set the recommended permissions: ➜ root@cluster2-node1:~# chmod 644 /var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml ➜ root@cluster2-node1:~# stat -c %a /var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml 644 And check if test 2.2.10 is passing: ➜ root@cluster2-node1:~# kube-bench run --targets=node | grep 4.1.9 [PASS] 2.2.10 Ensure that the kubelet configuration file has permissions set to 644 or more restrictive (Scored) Number 4 Finally for number (4), let's check whether --client-ca-file argument for the kubelet is set properly according to kube-bench recommendations: ➜ root@cluster2-node1:~# kube-bench run --targets=node | grep client-ca-file [PASS] 4.2.3 Ensure that the --client-ca-file argument is set as appropriate (Automated) This looks passing with 4.2.3. The other ones are about the file that the parameter points to and can be ignored here. To further investigate we run the following command to locate the kubelet config file, and open it: ➜ root@cluster2-node1:~# ps -ef | grep kubelet root 5157 1 2 20:28 ? 00:03:22 /usr/bin/kubelet --bootstrap-kubeconfig=/etc/kubernetes/bootstrap-kubelet.conf --kubeconfig=/etc/kubernetes/kubelet.conf --config=/var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml --network-plugin=cni --pod-infra-container-image=k8s.gcr.io/pause:3.2 root 19940 11901 0 22:38 pts/0 00:00:00 grep --color=auto kubelet ➜ root@croot@cluster2-node1:~# vim /var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml # /var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml apiVersion: kubelet.config.k8s.io/v1beta1 authentication: anonymous: enabled: false webhook: cacheTTL: 0s enabled: true x509: clientCAFile: /etc/kubernetes/pki/ca.crt ... The clientCAFile points to the location of the certificate, which is correct. 第六题： Verify Platform Binaries 问题 Task weight: 2% (can be solved in any kubectl context) There are four Kubernetes server binaries located at /opt/course/6/binaries. You're provided with the following verified sha512 values for these: kube-apiserver f417c0555bc0167355589dd1afe23be9bf909bf98312b1025f12015d1b58a1c62c9908c0067a7764fa35efdac7016a9efa8711a44425dd6692906a7c283f032c kube-controller-manager 60100cc725e91fe1a949e1b2d0474237844b5862556e25c2c655a33boa8225855ec5ee22fa4927e6c46a60d43a7c4403a27268f96fbb726307d1608b44f38a60 kube-proxy 52f9d8ad045f8eee1d689619ef8ceef2d86d50c75a6a332653240d7ba5b2a114aca056d9e513984ade24358c9662714973c1960c62a5cb37dd375631c8a614c6 kubelet 4be40f2440619e990897cf956c32800dc96c2c983bf64519854a3309fa5aa21827991559f9c44595098e27e6f2ee4d64a3fdec6baba8a177881f20e3ec61e26c Delete those binaries that don't match with the sha512 values above. 解答 We check the directory: ➜ cd /opt/course/6/binaries ➜ ls kube-apiserver kube-controller-manager kube-proxy kubelet To generate the sha512 sum of a binary we do: ➜ sha512sum kube-apiserver f417c0555bc0167355589dd1afe23be9bf909bf98312b1025f12015d1b58a1c62c9908c0067a7764fa35efdac7016a9efa8711a44425dd6692906a7c283f032c kube-apiserver Looking good, next: ➜ sha512sum kube-controller-manager 60100cc725e91fe1a949e1b2d0474237844b5862556e25c2c655a33b0a8225855ec5ee22fa4927e6c46a60d43a7c4403a27268f96fbb726307d1608b44f38a60 kube-controller-manager Okay, next: ➜ sha512sum kube-proxy 52f9d8ad045f8eee1d689619ef8ceef2d86d50c75a6a332653240d7ba5b2a114aca056d9e513984ade24358c9662714973c1960c62a5cb37dd375631c8a614c6 kube-proxy Also good, and finally: ➜ sha512sum kubelet 7b720598e6a3483b45c537b57d759e3e82bc5c53b3274f681792f62e941019cde3d51a7f9b55158abf3810d506146bc0aa7cf97b36f27f341028a54431b335be kubelet Catch! Binary kubelet has a different hash! But did we actually compare everything properly before? Let's have a closer look at kube-controller-manager again: ➜ sha512sum kube-controller-manager > compare ➜ vim compare Edit to only have the provided hash and the generated one in one line each: # ./compare 60100cc725e91fe1a949e1b2d0474237844b5862556e25c2c655a33b0a8225855ec5ee22fa4927e6c46a60d43a7c4403a27268f96fbb726307d1608b44f38a60 60100cc725e91fe1a949e1b2d0474237844b5862556e25c2c655a33boa8225855ec5ee22fa4927e6c46a60d43a7c4403a27268f96fbb726307d1608b44f38a60 Looks right at a first glance, but if we do: ➜ cat compare | uniq 60100cc725e91fe1a949e1b2d0474237844b5862556e25c2c655a33b0a8225855ec5ee22fa4927e6c46a60d43a7c4403a27268f96fbb726307d1608b44f38a60 60100cc725e91fe1a949e1b2d0474237844b5862556e25c2c655a33boa8225855ec5ee22fa4927e6c46a60d43a7c4403a27268f96fbb726307d1608b44f38a60 This shows they are different, by just one character actually. To complete the task we do: rm kubelet kube-controller-manager 第七题： Open Policy Agent 问题 Task weight: 6% Use context: kubectl config use-context infra-prod The Open Policy Agent and Gatekeeper have been installed to, among other things, enforce blacklisting of certain image registries. Alter the existing constraint and/or template to also blacklist images from very-bad-registry.com. Test it by creating a single Pod using image very-bad-registry.com/image in Namespace default, it shouldn't work. You can also verify your changes by looking at the existing Deployment untrusted in Namespace default, it uses an image from the new untrusted source. The OPA contraint should throw violation messages for this one. 解答 We look at existing OPA constraints, these are implemeted using CRDs by Gatekeeper: ➜ k get crd NAME CREATED AT blacklistimages.constraints.gatekeeper.sh 2020-09-14T19:29:31Z configs.config.gatekeeper.sh 2020-09-14T19:29:04Z constraintpodstatuses.status.gatekeeper.sh 2020-09-14T19:29:05Z constrainttemplatepodstatuses.status.gatekeeper.sh 2020-09-14T19:29:05Z constrainttemplates.templates.gatekeeper.sh 2020-09-14T19:29:05Z requiredlabels.constraints.gatekeeper.sh 2020-09-14T19:29:31Z So we can do: ➜ k get constraint NAME AGE blacklistimages.constraints.gatekeeper.sh/pod-trusted-images 10m NAME AGE requiredlabels.constraints.gatekeeper.sh/namespace-mandatory-labels 10m and then look at the one that is probably about blacklisting images: k edit blacklistimages pod-trusted-images # kubectl edit blacklistimages pod-trusted-images apiVersion: constraints.gatekeeper.sh/v1beta1 kind: BlacklistImages metadata: ... spec: match: kinds: - apiGroups: - "" kinds: - Pod It looks like this constraint simply applies the template to all Pods, no arguments passed. So we edit the template: k edit constrainttemplates blacklistimages # kubectl edit constrainttemplates blacklistimages apiVersion: templates.gatekeeper.sh/v1beta1 kind: ConstraintTemplate metadata: ... spec: crd: spec: names: kind: BlacklistImages targets: - rego: | package k8strustedimages images { image := input.review.object.spec.containers[_].image not startswith(image, "docker-fake.io/") not startswith(image, "google-gcr-fake.com/") not startswith(image, "very-bad-registry.com/") # ADD THIS LINE } violation[{"msg": msg}] { not images msg := "not trusted image!" } target: admission.k8s.gatekeeper.sh We simply have to add another line. After editing we try to create a Pod of the bad image: ➜ k run opa-test --image=very-bad-registry.com/image Error from server ([denied by pod-trusted-images] not trusted image!): admission webhook "validation.gatekeeper.sh" denied the request: [denied by pod-trusted-images] not trusted image! Nice! After some time we can also see that Pods of the existing Deployment "untrusted" will be listed as violators: ➜ k describe blacklistimages pod-trusted-images ... Total Violations: 2 Violations: Enforcement Action: deny Kind: Namespace Message: you must provide labels: {"security-level"} Name: sidecar-injector Enforcement Action: deny Kind: Pod Message: not trusted image! Name: untrusted-68c4944d48-tfsnb Namespace: default Events: <none> Great, OPA fights bad registries ! 第八题： Secure Kubernetes Dashboard 问题 Task weight: 3% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod The Kubernetes Dashboard is installed in Namespace kubernetes-dashboard and is configured to: Allow users to "skip login" Allow insecure access (HTTP without authentication) Allow basic authentication Allow access from outside the cluster You are asked to make it more secure by: Deny users to "skip login" Deny insecure access, enforce HTTPS (self signed certificates are ok for now) Add the --auto-generate-certificates argument Enforce authentication using a token (with possibility to use RBAC) Allow only cluster internal access 解答 Head to https://github.com/kubernetes/dashboard/tree/master/docs to find documentation about the dashboard. This link is not on the allowed list of urls during the real exam. This means you should be provided will all information necessary in case of a task like this. First we have a look in Namespace kubernetes-dashboard: ➜ k -n kubernetes-dashboard get pod,svc NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE pod/dashboard-metrics-scraper-7b59f7d4df-fbpd9 1/1 Running 0 24m pod/kubernetes-dashboard-6d8cd5dd84-w7wr2 1/1 Running 0 24m NAME TYPE ... PORT(S) AGE service/dashboard-metrics-scraper ClusterIP ... 8000/TCP 24m service/kubernetes-dashboard NodePort ... 9090:32520/TCP,443:31206/TCP 24m We can see one running Pod and a NodePort Service exposing it. Let's try to connect to it via a NodePort, we can use IP of any Node: (your port might be a different) ➜ k get node -o wide NAME STATUS ROLES AGE VERSION INTERNAL-IP ... cluster1-controlplane1 Ready master 37m v1.28.2 192.168.100.11 ... cluster1-node1 Ready <none> 36m v1.28.2 192.168.100.12 ... cluster1-node2 Ready <none> 34m v1.28.2 192.168.100.13 ... ➜ curl http://192.168.100.11:32520 <!-- Copyright 2017 The Kubernetes Authors. Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 The dashboard is not secured because it allows unsecure HTTP access without authentication and is exposed externally. It's is loaded with a few parameter making it insecure, let's fix this. First we create a backup in case we need to undo something: k -n kubernetes-dashboard get deploy kubernetes-dashboard -oyaml > 8_deploy_kubernetes-dashboard.yaml Then: k -n kubernetes-dashboard edit deploy kubernetes-dashboard The changes to make are : template: spec: containers: - args: - --namespace=kubernetes-dashboard - --authentication-mode=token # change or delete, "token" is default - --auto-generate-certificates # add #- --enable-skip-login=true # delete or set to false #- --enable-insecure-login # delete image: kubernetesui/dashboard:v2.0.3 imagePullPolicy: Always name: kubernetes-dashboard Next, we'll have to deal with the NodePort Service: k -n kubernetes-dashboard get svc kubernetes-dashboard -o yaml > 8_svc_kubernetes-dashboard.yaml # backup k -n kubernetes-dashboard edit svc kubernetes-dashboard And make the following changes: spec: clusterIP: 10.107.176.19 externalTrafficPolicy: Cluster # delete internalTrafficPolicy: Cluster ports: - name: http nodePort: 32513 # delete port: 9090 protocol: TCP targetPort: 9090 - name: https nodePort: 32441 # delete port: 443 protocol: TCP targetPort: 8443 selector: k8s-app: kubernetes-dashboard sessionAffinity: None type: ClusterIP # change or delete status: loadBalancer: {} Let's confirm the changes, we can do that even without having a browser: ➜ k run tmp --image=nginx:1.19.2 --restart=Never --rm -it -- bash If you don't see a command prompt, try pressing enter. root@tmp:/# curl http://kubernetes-dashboard.kubernetes-dashboard:9090 curl: (7) Failed to connect to kubernetes-dashboard.kubernetes-dashboard port 9090: Connection refused ➜ root@tmp:/# curl https://kubernetes-dashboard.kubernetes-dashboard curl: (60) SSL certificate problem: self signed certificate More details here: https://curl.haxx.se/docs/sslcerts.html curl failed to verify the legitimacy of the server and therefore could not establish a secure connection to it. To learn more about this situation and how to fix it, please visit the web page mentioned above. ➜ root@tmp:/# curl https://kubernetes-dashboard.kubernetes-dashboard -k <!-- Copyright 2017 The Kubernetes Authors. We see that insecure access is disabled and HTTPS works (using a self signed certificate for now). Let's also check the remote access: (your port might be a different) ➜ curl http://192.168.100.11:32520 curl: (7) Failed to connect to 192.168.100.11 port 32520: Connection refused ➜ k -n kubernetes-dashboard get svc NAME TYPE CLUSTER-IP ... PORT(S) dashboard-metrics-scraper ClusterIP 10.111.171.247 ... 8000/TCP kubernetes-dashboard ClusterIP 10.100.118.128 ... 9090/TCP,443/TCP Much better. 第九题： AppArmor Profile Task weight: 3% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod Some containers need to run more secure and restricted. There is an existing AppArmor profile located at/opt/course/9/profile for this. Install the AppArmor profile on Node cluster1-node1. Connect using ssh cluster1-node1. Add label security=apparmor to the Node Create a Deployment named apparmor in Namespace default with: One replica of image nginx:1.19.2 NodeSelector for security=apparmor Single container named c1 with the AppArmor profile enabled The Pod might not run properly with the profile enabled. Write the logs of the Pod into /opt/course/9/logs so another team can work on getting the application running. 解答 参考链接: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tutorials/clusters/apparmor Part 1 First we have a look at the provided profile: vim /opt/course/9/profile # /opt/course/9/profile #include <tunables/global> profile very-secure flags=(attach_disconnected) { #include <abstractions/base> file, # Deny all file writes. deny /** w, } Very simple profile named very-secure which denies all file writes. Next we copy it onto the Node: ➜ scp /opt/course/9/profile cluster1-node1:~/ Warning: Permanently added the ECDSA host key for IP address '192.168.100.12' to the list of known hosts. profile 100% 161 329.9KB/s 00:00 ➜ ssh cluster1-node1 ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# ls profile And install it: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# apparmor_parser -q ./profile Verify it has been installed: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# apparmor_status apparmor module is loaded. 17 profiles are loaded. 17 profiles are in enforce mode. /sbin/dhclient ... man_filter man_groff very-secure 0 profiles are in complain mode. 56 processes have profiles defined. 56 processes are in enforce mode. ... 0 processes are in complain mode. 0 processes are unconfined but have a profile defined. There we see among many others the very-secure one, which is the name of the profile specified in /opt/course/9/profile. Part 2 We label the Node: k label -h # show examples k label node cluster1-node1 security=apparmor Part 3 Now we can go ahead and create the Deployment which uses the profile. k create deploy apparmor --image=nginx:1.19.2 $do > 9_deploy.yaml vim 9_deploy.yaml # 9_deploy.yaml apiVersion: apps/v1 kind: Deployment metadata: creationTimestamp: null labels: app: apparmor name: apparmor namespace: default spec: replicas: 1 selector: matchLabels: app: apparmor strategy: {} template: metadata: creationTimestamp: null labels: app: apparmor annotations: # add container.apparmor.security.beta.kubernetes.io/c1: localhost/very-secure # add spec: nodeSelector: # add security: apparmor # add containers: - image: nginx:1.19.2 name: c1 # change resources: {} k -f 9_deploy.yaml create What the damage? ➜ k get pod -owide | grep apparmor apparmor-85c65645dc-jbch8 0/1 CrashLoopBackOff ... cluster1-node1 ➜ k logs apparmor-85c65645dc-w852p /docker-entrypoint.sh: 13: /docker-entrypoint.sh: cannot create /dev/null: Permission denied /docker-entrypoint.sh: No files found in /docker-entrypoint.d/, skipping configuration 2021/09/15 11:51:57 [emerg] 1#1: mkdir() "/var/cache/nginx/client_temp" failed (13: Permission denied) nginx: [emerg] mkdir() "/var/cache/nginx/client_temp" failed (13: Permission denied) ```bash This looks alright, the Pod is running on `cluster1-node1` because of the nodeSelector. The AppArmor profile simply denies all filesystem writes, but Nginx needs to write into some locations to run, hence the errors. It looks like our profile is running but we can confirm this as well by inspecting the container: ```bash ➜ ssh cluster1-node1 ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl pods | grep apparmor be5c0aecee7c7 4 minutes ago Ready apparmor-85c65645dc-jbch8 ... ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl ps -a | grep be5c0aecee7c7 e4d91cbdf72fb ... Exited c1 6 be5c0aecee7c7 ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl inspect e4d91cbdf72fb | grep -i profile "apparmor_profile": "localhost/very-secure", "apparmorProfile": "very-secure", First we find the Pod by it's name and get the pod-id. Next we use crictl ps -a to also show stopped containers. Then crictl inspect shows that the container is using our AppArmor profile. Notice to be fast between ps and inspect as K8s will restart the Pod periodically when in error state. To complete the task we write the logs into the required location: k logs apparmor-85c65645dc-jbch8 > /opt/course/9/logs Fixing the errors is the job of another team, lucky us. 第十题： Container Runtime Sandbox gVisor 问题 Task weight: 4% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod Team purple wants to run some of their workloads more secure. Worker node cluster1-node2 has container engine containerd already installed and it's configured to support the runsc/gvisor runtime. Create a RuntimeClass named gvisor with handler runsc. Create a Pod that uses the RuntimeClass. The Pod should be in Namespace team-purple, named gvisor-test and of image nginx:1.19.2. Make sure the Pod runs on cluster1-node2. Write the dmesg output of the successfully started Pod into /opt/course/10/gvisor-test-dmesg. 解答 We check the nodes and we can see that all are using containerd: ➜ k get node -o wide NAME STATUS ROLES ... CONTAINER-RUNTIME cluster1-controlplane1 Ready control-plane ... containerd://1.5.2 cluster1-node1 Ready <none> ... containerd://1.5.2 cluster1-node2 Ready <none> ... containerd://1.5.2 But just one has containerd configured to work with runsc/gvisor runtime which is cluster1-node2. (Optionally) we ssh into the worker node and check if containerd+runsc is configured: ➜ ssh cluster1-node2 ➜ root@cluster1-node2:~# runsc --version runsc version release-20201130.0 spec: 1.0.1-dev ➜ root@cluster1-node2:~# cat /etc/containerd/config.toml | grep runsc [plugins."io.containerd.grpc.v1.cri".containerd.runtimes.runsc] runtime_type = "io.containerd.runsc.v1" Now we best head to the k8s docs for RuntimeClasses https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/containers/runtime-class, steal an example and create the gvisor one: vim 10_rtc.yaml # 10_rtc.yaml apiVersion: node.k8s.io/v1 kind: RuntimeClass metadata: name: gvisor handler: runsc k -f 10_rtc.yaml create And the required Pod: k -n team-purple run gvisor-test --image=nginx:1.19.2 $do > 10_pod.yaml vim 10_pod.yaml # 10_pod.yaml apiVersion: v1 kind: Pod metadata: creationTimestamp: null labels: run: gvisor-test name: gvisor-test namespace: team-purple spec: nodeName: cluster1-node2 # add runtimeClassName: gvisor # add containers: - image: nginx:1.19.2 name: gvisor-test resources: {} dnsPolicy: ClusterFirst restartPolicy: Always status: {} k -f 10_pod.yaml create After creating the pod we should check if it's running and if it uses the gvisor sandbox: ➜ k -n team-purple get pod gvisor-test NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE gvisor-test 1/1 Running 0 30s ➜ k -n team-purple exec gvisor-test -- dmesg [ 0.000000] Starting gVisor... [ 0.417740] Checking naughty and nice process list... [ 0.623721] Waiting for children... [ 0.902192] Gathering forks... [ 1.258087] Committing treasure map to memory... [ 1.653149] Generating random numbers by fair dice roll... [ 1.918386] Creating cloned children... [ 2.137450] Digging up root... [ 2.369841] Forking spaghetti code... [ 2.840216] Rewriting operating system in Javascript... [ 2.956226] Creating bureaucratic processes... [ 3.329981] Ready! Looking good. And as required we finally write the dmesg output into the file: k -n team-purple exec gvisor-test > /opt/course/10/gvisor-test-dmesg -- dmesg 第十一题： Secrets in ETCD 问题 Task weight: 7% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod There is an existing Secret called database-access in Namespace team-green. Read the complete Secret content directly from ETCD (using etcdctl) and store it into /opt/course/11/etcd-secret-content. Write the plain and decoded Secret's value of key "pass" into /opt/course/11/database-password. 解答 Let's try to get the Secret value directly from ETCD, which will work since it isn't encrypted. First, we ssh into the master node where ETCD is running in this setup and check if etcdctl is installed and list it's options: ➜ ssh cluster1-controlplane1 ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# etcdctl NAME: etcdctl - A simple command line client for etcd. WARNING: Environment variable ETCDCTL_API is not set; defaults to etcdctl v2. Set environment variable ETCDCTL_API=3 to use v3 API or ETCDCTL_API=2 to use v2 API. USAGE: etcdctl [global options] command [command options] [arguments...] ... --cert-file value identify HTTPS client using this SSL certificate file --key-file value identify HTTPS client using this SSL key file --ca-file value verify certificates of HTTPS-enabled servers using this CA bundle ... Among others we see arguments to identify ourselves. The apiserver connects to ETCD, so we can run the following command to get the path of the necessary .crt and .key files: cat /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-apiserver.yaml | grep etcd The output is as follows : - --etcd-cafile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt - --etcd-certfile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-etcd-client.crt - --etcd-keyfile=/etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-etcd-client.key - --etcd-servers=https://127.0.0.1:2379 # optional since we're on same node With this information we query ETCD for the secret value: ➜ root@cluster1-controlplane1:~# ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl \ --cert /etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-etcd-client.crt \ --key /etc/kubernetes/pki/apiserver-etcd-client.key \ --cacert /etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt get /registry/secrets/team-green/database-access ETCD in Kubernetes stores data under /registry/{type}/{namespace}/{name}. This is how we came to look for /registry/secrets/team-green/database-access. There is also an example on a page in the k8s documentation which you could save as a bookmark to access fast during the exam. The tasks requires us to store the output on our terminal. For this we can simply copy&paste the content into a new file on our terminal: # /opt/course/11/etcd-secret-content /registry/secrets/team-green/database-access k8s v1Secret database-access team-green"*$3e0acd78-709d-4f07-bdac-d5193d0f2aa32bB 0kubectl.kubernetes.io/last-applied-configuration{"apiVersion":"v1","data":{"pass":"Y29uZmlkZW50aWFs"},"kind":"Secret","metadata":{"annotations":{},"name":"database-access","namespace":"team-green"}} z kubectl-client-side-applyUpdatevFieldsV1: {"f:data":{".":{},"f:pass":{}},"f:metadata":{"f:annotations":{".":{},"f:kubectl.kubernetes.io/last-applied-configuration":{}}},"f:type":{}} pass confidentialOpaque" We're also required to store the plain and "decrypted" database password. For this we can copy the base64-encoded value from the ETCD output and run on our terminal: ➜ echo Y29uZmlkZW50aWFs | base64 -d > /opt/course/11/database-password ➜ cat /opt/course/11/database-password confidential 第十二题： Hack Secrets 问题 Task weight: 8% Use context: kubectl config use-context restricted@infra-prod You're asked to investigate a possible permission escape in Namespace restricted. The context authenticates as user restricted which has only limited permissions and shouldn't be able to read Secret values. Try to find the password-key values of the Secrets secret1, secret2 and secret3 in Namespace restricted. Write the decoded plaintext values into files /opt/course/12/secret1, /opt/course/12/secret2 and /opt/course/12/secret3. 解答 First we should explore the boundaries, we can try: ➜ k -n restricted get role,rolebinding,clusterrole,clusterrolebinding Error from server (Forbidden): roles.rbac.authorization.k8s.io is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot list resource "roles" in API group "rbac.authorization.k8s.io" in the namespace "restricted" Error from server (Forbidden): rolebindings.rbac.authorization.k8s.io is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot list resource "rolebindings" in API group "rbac.authorization.k8s.io" in the namespace "restricted" Error from server (Forbidden): clusterroles.rbac.authorization.k8s.io is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot list resource "clusterroles" in API group "rbac.authorization.k8s.io" at the cluster scope Error from server (Forbidden): clusterrolebindings.rbac.authorization.k8s.io is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot list resource "clusterrolebindings" in API group "rbac.authorization.k8s.io" at the cluster scope But no permissions to view RBAC resources. So we try the obvious: ➜ k -n restricted get secret Error from server (Forbidden): secrets is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot list resource "secrets" in API group "" in the namespace "restricted" ➜ k -n restricted get secret -o yaml apiVersion: v1 items: [] kind: List metadata: resourceVersion: "" selfLink: "" Error from server (Forbidden): secrets is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot list resource "secrets" in API group "" in the namespace "restricted" We're not allowed to get or list any Secrets. What can we see though? ➜ k -n restricted get all NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE pod1-fd5d64b9c-pcx6q 1/1 Running 0 37s pod2-6494f7699b-4hks5 1/1 Running 0 37s pod3-748b48594-24s76 1/1 Running 0 37s Error from server (Forbidden): replicationcontrollers is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot list resource "replicationcontrollers" in API group "" in the namespace "restricted" Error from server (Forbidden): services is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot list resource "services" in API group "" in the namespace "restricted" ... There are some Pods, lets check these out regarding Secret access: k -n restricted get pod -o yaml | grep -i secret This output provides us with enough information to do: ➜ k -n restricted exec pod1-fd5d64b9c-pcx6q -- cat /etc/secret-volume/password you-are ➜ echo you-are > /opt/course/12/secret1 And for the second Secret: ➜ k -n restricted exec pod2-6494f7699b-4hks5 -- env | grep PASS PASSWORD=an-amazing ➜ echo an-amazing > /opt/course/12/secret2 None of the Pods seem to mount secret3 though. Can we create or edit existing Pods to mount secret3? ➜ k -n restricted run test --image=nginx Error from server (Forbidden): pods is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot create resource "pods" in API group "" in the namespace "restricted" ➜ k -n restricted delete pod pod1 Error from server (Forbidden): pods "pod1" is forbidden: User "restricted" cannot delete resource "pods" in API group "" in the namespace "restricted" Doesn't look like it. But the Pods seem to be able to access the Secrets, we can try to use a Pod's ServiceAccount to access the third Secret. We can actually see (like using k -n restricted get pod -o yaml | grep automountServiceAccountToken) that only Pod pod3-* has the ServiceAccount token mounted: ➜ k -n restricted exec -it pod3-748b48594-24s76 -- sh / # mount | grep serviceaccount tmpfs on /run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount type tmpfs (ro,relatime) / # ls /run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount ca.crt namespace token NOTE: You should have knowledge about ServiceAccounts and how they work with Pods like described in the docs We can see all necessary information to contact the apiserver manually: / # curl https://kubernetes.default/api/v1/namespaces/restricted/secrets -H "Authorization: Bearer $(cat /run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/token)" -k ... { "metadata": { "name": "secret3", "namespace": "restricted", ... } ] }, "data": { "password": "cEVuRXRSYVRpT24tdEVzVGVSCg==" }, "type": "Opaque" } ... Let's encode it and write it into the requested location: ➜ echo cEVuRXRSYVRpT24tdEVzVGVSCg== | base64 -d pEnEtRaTiOn-tEsTeR ➜ echo cEVuRXRSYVRpT24tdEVzVGVSCg== | base64 -d > /opt/course/12/secret3 This will give us: # /opt/course/12/secret1 you-are # /opt/course/12/secret2 an-amazing # /opt/course/12/secret3 pEnEtRaTiOn-tEsTeR We hacked all Secrets! It can be tricky to get RBAC right and secure. NOTE: One thing to consider is that giving the permission to "list" Secrets, will also allow the user to read the Secret values like using kubectl get secrets -o yaml even without the "get" permission set. 第十三题： Restrict access to Metadata Server 问题 Task weight: 7% Use context: kubectl config use-context infra-prod There is a metadata service available at http://192.168.100.21:32000 on which Nodes can reach sensitive data, like cloud credentials for initialisation. By default, all Pods in the cluster also have access to this endpoint. The DevSecOps team has asked you to restrict access to this metadata server. In Namespace metadata-access: Create a NetworkPolicy named metadata-deny which prevents egress to 192.168.100.21 for all Pods but still allows access to everything else Create a NetworkPolicy named metadata-allow which allows Pods having label role: metadata-accessor to access endpoint 192.168.100.21 There are existing Pods in the target Namespace with which you can test your policies, but don't change their labels. 解答 There was a famous hack at Shopify which was based on revealed information via metadata for nodes. Check the Pods in the Namespace metadata-access and their labels: ➜ k -n metadata-access get pods --show-labels NAME ... LABELS pod1-7d67b4ff9-xrcd7 ... app=pod1,pod-template-hash=7d67b4ff9 pod2-7b6fc66944-2hc7n ... app=pod2,pod-template-hash=7b6fc66944 pod3-7dc879bd59-hkgrr ... app=pod3,role=metadata-accessor,pod-template-hash=7dc879bd59 There are three Pods in the Namespace and one of them has the label role=metadata-accessor. Check access to the metadata server from the Pods: ➜ k exec -it -n metadata-access pod1-7d67b4ff9-xrcd7 -- curl http://192.168.100.21:32000 metadata server ➜ k exec -it -n metadata-access pod2-7b6fc66944-2hc7n -- curl http://192.168.100.21:32000 metadata server ➜ k exec -it -n metadata-access pod3-7dc879bd59-hkgrr -- curl http://192.168.100.21:32000 metadata server All three are able to access the metadata server. To restrict the access, we create a NetworkPolicy to deny access to the specific IP. vim 13_metadata-deny.yaml # 13_metadata-deny.yaml apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1 kind: NetworkPolicy metadata: name: metadata-deny namespace: metadata-access spec: podSelector: {} policyTypes: - Egress egress: - to: - ipBlock: cidr: 0.0.0.0/0 except: - 192.168.100.21/32 k -f 13_metadata-deny.yaml apply NOTE: You should know about general default-deny K8s NetworkPolcies. Verify that access to the metadata server has been blocked, but other endpoints are still accessible: ➜ k exec -it -n metadata-access pod1-7d67b4ff9-xrcd7 -- curl http://192.168.100.21:32000 curl: (28) Failed to connect to 192.168.100.21 port 32000: Operation timed out command terminated with exit code 28 ➜ kubectl exec -it -n metadata-access pod1-7d67b4ff9-xrcd7 -- curl -I https://kubernetes.io HTTP/2 200 cache-control: public, max-age=0, must-revalidate content-type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 date: Mon, 14 Sep 2020 15:39:39 GMT etag: "b46e429397e5f1fecf48c10a533f5cd8-ssl" strict-transport-security: max-age=31536000 age: 13 content-length: 22252 server: Netlify x-nf-request-id: 1d94a1d1-6bac-4a98-b065-346f661f1db1-393998290 Similarly, verify for the other two Pods. Now create another NetworkPolicy that allows access to the metadata server from Pods with label role=metadata-accessor. vim 13_metadata-allow.yaml # 13_metadata-allow.yaml apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1 kind: NetworkPolicy metadata: name: metadata-allow namespace: metadata-access spec: podSelector: matchLabels: role: metadata-accessor policyTypes: - Egress egress: - to: - ipBlock: cidr: 192.168.100.21/32 k -f 13_metadata-allow.yaml apply Verify that required Pod has access to metadata endpoint and others do not: ➜ k -n metadata-access exec pod3-7dc879bd59-hkgrr -- curl http://192.168.100.21:32000 metadata server ➜ k -n metadata-access exec pod2-7b6fc66944-9ngzr -- curl http://192.168.100.21:32000 ^Ccommand terminated with exit code 130 It only works for the Pod having the label. With this we implemented the required security restrictions. If a Pod doesn't have a matching NetworkPolicy then all traffic is allowed from and to it. Once a Pod has a matching NP then the contained rules are additive. This means that for Pods having label metadata-accessor the rules will be combined to: # merged policies into one for pods with label metadata-accessor spec: podSelector: {} policyTypes: - Egress egress: - to: # first rule - ipBlock: # condition 1 cidr: 0.0.0.0/0 except: - 192.168.100.21/32 - to: # second rule - ipBlock: # condition 1 cidr: 192.168.100.21/32 We can see that the merged NP contains two separate rules with one condition each. We could read it as: Allow outgoing traffic if: (destination is 0.0.0.0/0 but not 192.168.100.21/32) OR (destination is 192.168.100.21/32) Hence it allows Pods with label metadata-accessor to access everything. 第十四题： Syscall Activity 问题 Task weight: 4% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod There are Pods in Namespace team-yellow. A security investigation noticed that some processes running in these Pods are using the Syscall kill, which is forbidden by a Team Yellow internal policy. Find the offending Pod(s) and remove these by reducing the replicas of the parent Deployment to 0. 解答 Syscalls are used by processes running in Userspace to communicate with the Linux Kernel. There are many available syscalls: https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/syscalls.2.html. It makes sense to restrict these for container processes and Docker/Containerd already restrict some by default, like the reboot Syscall. Restricting even more is possible for example using Seccomp or AppArmor. But for this task we should simply find out which binary process executes a specific Syscall. Processes in containers are simply run on the same Linux operating system, but isolated. That's why we first check on which nodes the Pods are running: ➜ k -n team-yellow get pod -owide NAME ... NODE NOMINATED NODE ... collector1-7585cc58cb-n5rtd 1/1 ... cluster1-node1 <none> ... collector1-7585cc58cb-vdlp9 1/1 ... cluster1-node1 <none> ... collector2-8556679d96-z7g7c 1/1 ... cluster1-node1 <none> ... collector3-8b58fdc88-pjg24 1/1 ... cluster1-node1 <none> ... collector3-8b58fdc88-s9ltc 1/1 ... cluster1-node1 <none> ... All on cluster1-node1, hence we ssh into it and find the processes for the first Deployment collector1 . ➜ ssh cluster1-node1 ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl pods --name collector1 POD ID CREATED STATE NAME ... 21aacb8f4ca8d 17 minutes ago Ready collector1-7585cc58cb-vdlp9 ... 186631e40104d 17 minutes ago Ready collector1-7585cc58cb-n5rtd ... ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl ps --pod 21aacb8f4ca8d CONTAINER ID IMAGE CREATED ... POD ID 9ea02422f8660 5d867958e04e1 12 minutes ago ... 21aacb8f4ca8d ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# crictl inspect 9ea02422f8660 | grep args -A1 "args": [ "./collector1-process" Using crictl pods we first searched for the Pods of Deployment `collector1, which has two replicas We then took one pod-id to find it's containers using crictl ps And finally we used crictl inspect to find the process name, which is collector1-process We can find the process PIDs (two because there are two Pods): ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# ps aux | grep collector1-process root 35039 0.0 0.1 702208 1044 ? Ssl 13:37 0:00 ./collector1-process root 35059 0.0 0.1 702208 1044 ? Ssl 13:37 0:00 ./collector1-process Using the PIDs we can call strace to find Sycalls: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# strace -p 35039 strace: Process 35039 attached futex(0x4d7e68, FUTEX_WAIT_PRIVATE, 0, NULL) = 0 kill(666, SIGTERM) = -1 ESRCH (No such process) epoll_pwait(3, [], 128, 999, NULL, 1) = 0 kill(666, SIGTERM) = -1 ESRCH (No such process) epoll_pwait(3, [], 128, 999, NULL, 1) = 0 kill(666, SIGTERM) = -1 ESRCH (No such process) epoll_pwait(3, ^Cstrace: Process 35039 detached <detached ...> ... First try and already a catch! We see it uses the forbidden Syscall by calling kill(666, SIGTERM). Next let's check the Deployment collector2 processes: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# ps aux | grep collector2-process root 35375 0.0 0.0 702216 604 ? Ssl 13:37 0:00 ./collector2-process ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# strace -p 35375 strace: Process 35375 attached futex(0x4d9e68, FUTEX_WAIT_PRIVATE, 0, NULL) = 0 futex(0x4d9e68, FUTEX_WAIT_PRIVATE, 0, NULL) = 0 futex(0x4d9e68, FUTEX_WAIT_PRIVATE, 0, NULL) = 0 futex(0x4d9e68, FUTEX_WAIT_PRIVATE, 0, NULL) = 0 ... Looks alright. What about collector3: ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# ps aux | grep collector3-process root 35155 0.0 0.1 702472 1040 ? Ssl 13:37 0:00 ./collector3-process root 35241 0.0 0.1 702472 1044 ? Ssl 13:37 0:00 ./collector3-process ➜ root@cluster1-node1:~# strace -p 35155 strace: Process 35155 attached futex(0x4d9e68, FUTEX_WAIT_PRIVATE, 0, NULL) = 0 futex(0x4d9e68, FUTEX_WAIT_PRIVATE, 0, NULL) = 0 futex(0x4d9e68, FUTEX_WAIT_PRIVATE, 0, NULL) = 0 epoll_pwait(3, [], 128, 999, NULL, 1) = 0 epoll_pwait(3, [], 128, 999, NULL, 1) = 0 ... Also nothing about the forbidden Syscall. So we finalise the task: k -n team-yellow scale deploy collector1 --replicas 0 And the world is a bit safer again. 第十五题： Configure TLS on Ingress 问题 Task weight: 4% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod In Namespace team-pink there is an existing Nginx Ingress resources named secure which accepts two paths /app and /api which point to different ClusterIP Services. From your main terminal you can connect to it using for example: HTTP: curl -v http://secure-ingress.test:31080/app HTTPS: curl -kv https://secure-ingress.test:31443/app Right now it uses a default generated TLS certificate by the Nginx Ingress Controller. You're asked to instead use the key and certificate provided at /opt/course/15/tls.key and /opt/course/15/tls.crt. As it's a self-signed certificate you need to use curl -k when connecting to it. 解答 Investigate We can get the IP address of the Ingress and we see it's the same one to which secure-ingress.test is pointing to: ➜ k -n team-pink get ing secure NAME CLASS HOSTS ADDRESS PORTS AGE secure <none> secure-ingress.test 192.168.100.12 80 7m11s ➜ ping secure-ingress.test PING cluster1-node1 (192.168.100.12) 56(84) bytes of data. 64 bytes from cluster1-node1 (192.168.100.12): icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.316 ms Now, let's try to access the paths /app and /api via HTTP: ➜ curl http://secure-ingress.test:31080/app This is the backend APP! ➜ curl http://secure-ingress.test:31080/api This is the API Server! What about HTTPS? ➜ curl https://secure-ingress.test:31443/api curl: (60) SSL certificate problem: unable to get local issuer certificate More details here: https://curl.haxx.se/docs/sslcerts.html curl failed to verify the legitimacy of the server and therefore could not establish a secure connection to it. To learn more about this situation and how to fix it, please visit the web page mentioned above. ➜ curl -k https://secure-ingress.test:31443/api This is the API Server! HTTPS seems to be already working if we accept self-signed certificated using -k. But what kind of certificate is used by the server? ➜ curl -kv https://secure-ingress.test:31443/api ... * Server certificate: * subject: O=Acme Co; CN=Kubernetes Ingress Controller Fake Certificate * start date: Sep 28 12:28:35 2020 GMT * expire date: Sep 28 12:28:35 2021 GMT * issuer: O=Acme Co; CN=Kubernetes Ingress Controller Fake Certificate * SSL certificate verify result: unable to get local issuer certificate (20), continuing anyway. ... It seems to be "Kubernetes Ingress Controller Fake Certificate". Implement own TLS certificate First, let us generate a Secret using the provided key and certificate: ➜ cd /opt/course/15 ➜ :/opt/course/15$ ls tls.crt tls.key ➜ :/opt/course/15$ k -n team-pink create secret tls tls-secret --key tls.key --cert tls.crt secret/tls-secret created Now, we configure the Ingress to make use of this Secret: ➜ k -n team-pink get ing secure -oyaml > 15_ing_bak.yaml ➜ k -n team-pink edit ing secure # kubectl -n team-pink edit ing secure apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1 kind: Ingress metadata: annotations: ... generation: 1 name: secure namespace: team-pink ... spec: tls: # add - hosts: # add - secure-ingress.test # add secretName: tls-secret # add rules: - host: secure-ingress.test http: paths: - backend: service: name: secure-app port: 80 path: /app pathType: ImplementationSpecific - backend: service: name: secure-api port: 80 path: /api pathType: ImplementationSpecific ... After adding the changes we check the Ingress resource again: ➜ k -n team-pink get ing NAME CLASS HOSTS ADDRESS PORTS AGE secure <none> secure-ingress.test 192.168.100.12 80, 443 25m It now actually lists port 443 for HTTPS. To verify: ➜ curl -k https://secure-ingress.test:31443/api This is the API Server! ➜ curl -kv https://secure-ingress.test:31443/api ... * Server certificate: * subject: CN=secure-ingress.test; O=secure-ingress.test * start date: Sep 25 18:22:10 2020 GMT * expire date: Sep 20 18:22:10 2040 GMT * issuer: CN=secure-ingress.test; O=secure-ingress.test * SSL certificate verify result: self signed certificate (18), continuing anyway. ... We can see that the provided certificate is now being used by the Ingress for TLS termination. 第十六题： Docker Image Attack Surface 问题 Task weight: 7% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod There is a Deployment image-verify in Namespace team-blue which runs image registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v1. DevSecOps has asked you to improve this image by: Changing the base image to alpine:3.12 Not installing curl Updating nginx to use the version constraint >=1.18.0 Running the main process as user myuser Do not add any new lines to the Dockerfile, just edit existing ones. The file is located at /opt/course/16/image/Dockerfile. Tag your version as v2. You can build, tag and push using: cd /opt/course/16/image podman build -t registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 . podman run registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 # to test your changes podman push registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 Make the Deployment use your updated image tag v2. Make the Deployment use your updated image tag v2. 解答 We should have a look at the Docker Image at first: cd /opt/course/16/image cp Dockerfile Dockerfile.bak vim Dockerfile # /opt/course/16/image/Dockerfile FROM alpine:3.4 RUN apk update && apk add vim curl nginx=1.10.3-r0 RUN addgroup -S myuser && adduser -S myuser -G myuser COPY ./run.sh run.sh RUN ["chmod", "+x", "./run.sh"] USER root ENTRYPOINT ["/bin/sh", "./run.sh"] Very simple Dockerfile which seems to execute a script run.sh : # /opt/course/16/image/run.sh while true; do date; id; echo; sleep 1; done So it only outputs current date and credential information in a loop. We can see that output in the existing Deployment image-verify: ➜ k -n team-blue logs -f -l id=image-verify Fri Sep 25 20:59:12 UTC 2020 uid=0(root) gid=0(root) groups=0(root),1(bin),2(daemon),3(sys),4(adm),6(disk),10(wheel),11(floppy),20(dialout),26(tape),27(video) We see it's running as root. Next we update the Dockerfile according to the requirements: # /opt/course/16/image/Dockerfile # change FROM alpine:3.12 # change RUN apk update && apk add vim nginx>=1.18.0 RUN addgroup -S myuser && adduser -S myuser -G myuser COPY ./run.sh run.sh RUN ["chmod", "+x", "./run.sh"] # change USER myuser ENTRYPOINT ["/bin/sh", "./run.sh"] Then we build the new image: ➜ :/opt/course/16/image$ podman build -t registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 . ... STEP 7/7: ENTRYPOINT ["/bin/sh", "./run.sh"] COMMIT registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 --> ceb8989101b Successfully tagged registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 ceb8989101bccd9f6b9c3b4c6c75f6c3561f19a5b784edd1f1a36fa0fb34a9df We can then test our changes by running the container locally: ➜ :/opt/course/16/image$ podman run registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 Thu Sep 16 06:01:47 UTC 2021 uid=101(myuser) gid=102(myuser) groups=102(myuser) Thu Sep 16 06:01:48 UTC 2021 uid=101(myuser) gid=102(myuser) groups=102(myuser) Thu Sep 16 06:01:49 UTC 2021 uid=101(myuser) gid=102(myuser) groups=102(myuser) Looking good, so we push: ➜ :/opt/course/16/image$ podman push registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 Getting image source signatures Copying blob cd0853834d88 done Copying blob 5298d0709c3e skipped: already exists Copying blob e6688e911f15 done Copying blob dbc406096645 skipped: already exists Copying blob 98895ed393d9 done Copying config ceb8989101 done Writing manifest to image destination Storing signatures And we update the Deployment to use the new image: k -n team-blue edit deploy image-verify # kubectl -n team-blue edit deploy image-verify apiVersion: apps/v1 kind: Deployment metadata: ... spec: ... template: ... spec: containers: - image: registry.killer.sh:5000/image-verify:v2 # change And afterwards we can verify our changes by looking at the Pod logs: ➜ k -n team-blue logs -f -l id=image-verify Fri Sep 25 21:06:55 UTC 2020 uid=101(myuser) gid=102(myuser) groups=102(myuser) Also to verify our changes even further: ➜ k -n team-blue exec image-verify-55fbcd4c9b-x2flc -- curl OCI runtime exec failed: exec failed: container_linux.go:349: starting container process caused "exec: \"curl\": executable file not found in $PATH": unknown command terminated with exit code 126 ➜ k -n team-blue exec image-verify-55fbcd4c9b-x2flc -- nginx -v nginx version: nginx/1.18.0 Another task solved. 第十七题： Audit Log Policy 问题 Task weight: 7% Use context: kubectl config use-context infra-prod Audit Logging has been enabled in the cluster with an Audit Policy located at /etc/kubernetes/audit/policy.yaml on cluster2-controlplane1. Change the configuration so that only one backup of the logs is stored. Alter the Policy in a way that it only stores logs: From Secret resources, level Metadata From "system:nodes" userGroups, level RequestResponse After you altered the Policy make sure to empty the log file so it only contains entries according to your changes, like using truncate -s 0 /etc/kubernetes/audit/logs/audit.log. NOTE: You can use jq to render json more readable. cat data.json | jq 解答 First we check the apiserver configuration and change as requested: ➜ ssh cluster2-controlplane1 ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# cp /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-apiserver.yaml ~/17_kube-apiserver.yaml # backup ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# vim /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-apiserver.yaml # /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-apiserver.yaml apiVersion: v1 kind: Pod metadata: creationTimestamp: null labels: component: kube-apiserver tier: control-plane name: kube-apiserver namespace: kube-system spec: containers: - command: - kube-apiserver - --audit-policy-file=/etc/kubernetes/audit/policy.yaml - --audit-log-path=/etc/kubernetes/audit/logs/audit.log - --audit-log-maxsize=5 - --audit-log-maxbackup=1 # CHANGE - --advertise-address=192.168.100.21 - --allow-privileged=true ... NOTE: You should know how to enable Audit Logging completely yourself as described in the docs. Feel free to try this in another cluster in this environment. Now we look at the existing Policy: ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# vim /etc/kubernetes/audit/policy.yaml # /etc/kubernetes/audit/policy.yaml apiVersion: audit.k8s.io/v1 kind: Policy rules: - level: Metadata We can see that this simple Policy logs everything on Metadata level. So we change it to the requirements: # /etc/kubernetes/audit/policy.yaml apiVersion: audit.k8s.io/v1 kind: Policy rules: # log Secret resources audits, level Metadata - level: Metadata resources: - group: "" resources: ["secrets"] # log node related audits, level RequestResponse - level: RequestResponse userGroups: ["system:nodes"] # for everything else don't log anything - level: None After saving the changes we have to restart the apiserver: ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:~# cd /etc/kubernetes/manifests/ ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:/etc/kubernetes/manifests# mv kube-apiserver.yaml .. ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:/etc/kubernetes/manifests# watch crictl ps # wait for apiserver gone ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:/etc/kubernetes/manifests# truncate -s 0 /etc/kubernetes/audit/logs/audit.log ➜ root@cluster2-controlplane1:/etc/kubernetes/manifests# mv ../kube-apiserver.yaml . Once the apiserver is running again we can check the new logs and scroll through some entries: cat audit.log | tail | jq { "kind": "Event", "apiVersion": "audit.k8s.io/v1", "level": "Metadata", "auditID": "e598dc9e-fc8b-4213-aee3-0719499ab1bd", "stage": "RequestReceived", "requestURI": "...", "verb": "watch", "user": { "username": "system:serviceaccount:gatekeeper-system:gatekeeper-admin", "uid": "79870838-75a8-479b-ad42-4b7b75bd17a3", "groups": [ "system:serviceaccounts", "system:serviceaccounts:gatekeeper-system", "system:authenticated" ] }, "sourceIPs": [ "192.168.102.21" ], "userAgent": "manager/v0.0.0 (linux/amd64) kubernetes/$Format", "objectRef": { "resource": "secrets", "apiVersion": "v1" }, "requestReceivedTimestamp": "2020-09-27T20:01:36.238911Z", "stageTimestamp": "2020-09-27T20:01:36.238911Z", "annotations": { "authentication.k8s.io/legacy-token": "..." } } Above we logged a watch action by OPA Gatekeeper for Secrets, level Metadata. { "kind": "Event", "apiVersion": "audit.k8s.io/v1", "level": "RequestResponse", "auditID": "c90e53ed-b0cf-4cc4-889a-f1204dd39267", "stage": "ResponseComplete", "requestURI": "...", "verb": "list", "user": { "username": "system:node:cluster2-controlplane1", "groups": [ "system:nodes", "system:authenticated" ] }, "sourceIPs": [ "192.168.100.21" ], "userAgent": "kubelet/v1.19.1 (linux/amd64) kubernetes/206bcad", "objectRef": { "resource": "configmaps", "namespace": "kube-system", "name": "kube-proxy", "apiVersion": "v1" }, "responseStatus": { "metadata": {}, "code": 200 }, "responseObject": { "kind": "ConfigMapList", "apiVersion": "v1", "metadata": { "selfLink": "/api/v1/namespaces/kube-system/configmaps", "resourceVersion": "83409" }, "items": [ { "metadata": { "name": "kube-proxy", "namespace": "kube-system", "selfLink": "/api/v1/namespaces/kube-system/configmaps/kube-proxy", "uid": "0f1c3950-430a-4543-83e4-3f9c87a478b8", "resourceVersion": "232", "creationTimestamp": "2020-09-26T20:59:50Z", "labels": { "app": "kube-proxy" }, "annotations": { "kubeadm.kubernetes.io/component-config.hash": "..." }, "managedFields": [ { ... } ] }, ... } ] }, "requestReceivedTimestamp": "2020-09-27T20:01:36.223781Z", "stageTimestamp": "2020-09-27T20:01:36.225470Z", "annotations": { "authorization.k8s.io/decision": "allow", "authorization.k8s.io/reason": "" } } And in the one above we logged a list action by system:nodes for a ConfigMaps, level RequestResponse. Because all JSON entries are written in a single line in the file we could also run some simple verifications on our Policy: # shows Secret entries cat audit.log | grep '"resource":"secrets"' | wc -l # confirms Secret entries are only of level Metadata cat audit.log | grep '"resource":"secrets"' | grep -v '"level":"Metadata"' | wc -l # shows RequestResponse level entries cat audit.log | grep -v '"level":"RequestResponse"' | wc -l # shows RequestResponse level entries are only for system:nodes cat audit.log | grep '"level":"RequestResponse"' | grep -v "system:nodes" | wc -l Looks like our job is done. 第十八题： Investigate Break-in via Audit Log 问题 Task weight: 4% Use context: kubectl config use-context infra-prod Namespace security contains five Secrets of type Opaque which can be considered highly confidential. The latest Incident-Prevention-Investigation revealed that ServiceAccount p.auster had too broad access to the cluster for some time. This SA should've never had access to any Secrets in that Namespace. Find out which Secrets in Namespace security this SA did access by looking at the Audit Logs under /opt/course/18/audit.log. Change the password to any new string of only those Secrets that were accessed by this SA. NOTE: You can use jq to render json more readable. cat data.json | jq 解答 First we look at the Secrets this is about: ➜ k -n security get secret | grep Opaque kubeadmin-token Opaque 1 37m mysql-admin Opaque 1 37m postgres001 Opaque 1 37m postgres002 Opaque 1 37m vault-token Opaque 1 37m Next we investigate the Audit Log file: ➜ cd /opt/course/18 ➜ :/opt/course/18$ ls -lh total 7.1M -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 7.5M Sep 24 21:31 audit.log ➜ :/opt/course/18$ cat audit.log | wc -l 4451 Audit Logs can be huge and it's common to limit the amount by creating an Audit Policy and to transfer the data in systems like Elasticsearch. In this case we have a simple JSON export, but it already contains 4451 lines. We should try to filter the file down to relevant information: ➜ :/opt/course/18$ cat audit.log | grep "p.auster" | wc -l 28 Not too bad, only 28 logs for ServiceAccount p.auster. ➜ :/opt/course/18$ cat audit.log | grep "p.auster" | grep Secret | wc -l 2 And only 2 logs related to Secrets... ➜ :/opt/course/18$ cat audit.log | grep "p.auster" | grep Secret | grep list | wc -l 0 ➜ :/opt/course/18$ cat audit.log | grep "p.auster" | grep Secret | grep get | wc -l 2 No list actions, which is good, but 2 get actions, so we check these out: cat audit.log | grep "p.auster" | grep Secret | grep get | jq { "kind": "Event", "apiVersion": "audit.k8s.io/v1", "level": "RequestResponse", "auditID": "74fd9e03-abea-4df1-b3d0-9cfeff9ad97a", "stage": "ResponseComplete", "requestURI": "/api/v1/namespaces/security/secrets/vault-token", "verb": "get", "user": { "username": "system:serviceaccount:security:p.auster", "uid": "29ecb107-c0e8-4f2d-816a-b16f4391999c", "groups": [ "system:serviceaccounts", "system:serviceaccounts:security", "system:authenticated" ] }, ... "userAgent": "curl/7.64.0", "objectRef": { "resource": "secrets", "namespace": "security", "name": "vault-token", "apiVersion": "v1" }, ... } { "kind": "Event", "apiVersion": "audit.k8s.io/v1", "level": "RequestResponse", "auditID": "aed6caf9-5af0-4872-8f09-ad55974bb5e0", "stage": "ResponseComplete", "requestURI": "/api/v1/namespaces/security/secrets/mysql-admin", "verb": "get", "user": { "username": "system:serviceaccount:security:p.auster", "uid": "29ecb107-c0e8-4f2d-816a-b16f4391999c", "groups": [ "system:serviceaccounts", "system:serviceaccounts:security", "system:authenticated" ] }, ... "userAgent": "curl/7.64.0", "objectRef": { "resource": "secrets", "namespace": "security", "name": "mysql-admin", "apiVersion": "v1" }, ... } There we see that Secrets vault-token and mysql-admin were accessed by p.auster. Hence we change the passwords for those. ➜ echo new-vault-pass | base64 bmV3LXZhdWx0LXBhc3MK ➜ k -n security edit secret vault-token ➜ echo new-mysql-pass | base64 bmV3LW15c3FsLXBhc3MK ➜ k -n security edit secret mysql-admin ```bash Audit Logs ftw. By running cat audit.log | grep "p.auster" | grep Secret | grep password we can see that passwords are stored in the Audit Logs, because they store the complete content of Secrets. It's never a good idea to reveal passwords in logs. In this case it would probably be sufficient to only store Metadata level information of Secrets which can be controlled via a Audit Policy. 第十九题： Immutable Root FileSystem 问题： Task weight: 2% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-prod The Deployment immutable-deployment in Namespace team-purple should run immutable, it's created from file /opt/course/19/immutable-deployment.yaml. Even after a successful break-in, it shouldn't be possible for an attacker to modify the filesystem of the running container. Modify the Deployment in a way that no processes inside the container can modify the local filesystem, only /tmp directory should be writeable. Don't modify the Docker image. Save the updated YAML under /opt/course/19/immutable-deployment-new.yaml and update the running Deployment. 解答 Processes in containers can write to the local filesystem by default. This increases the attack surface when a non-malicious process gets hijacked. Preventing applications to write to disk or only allowing to certain directories can mitigate the risk. If there is for example a bug in Nginx which allows an attacker to override any file inside the container, then this only works if the Nginx process itself can write to the filesystem in the first place. Making the root filesystem readonly can be done in the Docker image itself or in a Pod declaration. Let us first check the Deployment immutable-deployment in Namespaceteam-purple: ➜ k -n team-purple edit deploy -o yaml # kubectl -n team-purple edit deploy -o yaml apiVersion: apps/v1 kind: Deployment metadata: namespace: team-purple name: immutable-deployment labels: app: immutable-deployment ... spec: replicas: 1 selector: matchLabels: app: immutable-deployment template: metadata: labels: app: immutable-deployment spec: containers: - image: busybox:1.32.0 command: ['sh', '-c', 'tail -f /dev/null'] imagePullPolicy: IfNotPresent name: busybox restartPolicy: Always ... The container has write access to the Root File System, as there are no restrictions defined for the Pods or containers by an existing SecurityContext. And based on the task we're not allowed to alter the Docker image. So we modify the YAML manifest to include the required changes: cp /opt/course/19/immutable-deployment.yaml /opt/course/19/immutable-deployment-new.yaml vim /opt/course/19/immutable-deployment-new.yaml # /opt/course/19/immutable-deployment-new.yaml apiVersion: apps/v1 kind: Deployment metadata: namespace: team-purple name: immutable-deployment labels: app: immutable-deployment spec: replicas: 1 selector: matchLabels: app: immutable-deployment template: metadata: labels: app: immutable-deployment spec: containers: - image: busybox:1.32.0 command: ['sh', '-c', 'tail -f /dev/null'] imagePullPolicy: IfNotPresent name: busybox securityContext: # add readOnlyRootFilesystem: true # add volumeMounts: # add - mountPath: /tmp # add name: temp-vol # add volumes: # add - name: temp-vol # add emptyDir: {} # add restartPolicy: Always SecurityContexts can be set on Pod or container level, here the latter was asked. Enforcing readOnlyRootFilesystem: true will render the root filesystem readonly. We can then allow some directories to be writable by using an emptyDir volume. Once the changes are made, let us update the Deployment: ➜ k delete -f /opt/course/19/immutable-deployment-new.yaml deployment.apps "immutable-deployment" deleted ➜ k create -f /opt/course/19/immutable-deployment-new.yaml deployment.apps/immutable-deployment created We can verify if the required changes are propagated: ➜ k -n team-purple exec immutable-deployment-5b7ff8d464-j2nrj -- touch /abc.txt touch: /abc.txt: Read-only file system command terminated with exit code 1 ➜ k -n team-purple exec immutable-deployment-5b7ff8d464-j2nrj -- touch /var/abc.txt touch: /var/abc.txt: Read-only file system command terminated with exit code 1 ➜ k -n team-purple exec immutable-deployment-5b7ff8d464-j2nrj -- touch /etc/abc.txt touch: /etc/abc.txt: Read-only file system command terminated with exit code 1 ➜ k -n team-purple exec immutable-deployment-5b7ff8d464-j2nrj -- touch /tmp/abc.txt ➜ k -n team-purple exec immutable-deployment-5b7ff8d464-j2nrj -- ls /tmp abc.txt The Deployment has been updated so that the container's file system is read-only, and the updated YAML has been placed under the required location. Sweet! 第二十题： Update Kubernetes 问题 Task weight: 8% Use context: kubectl config use-context workload-stage The cluster is running Kubernetes 1.27.6, update it to 1.28.2. Use apt package manager and kubeadm for this. Use ssh cluster3-controlplane1 and ssh cluster3-node1 to connect to the instances. 解决 过程总结： 先升级Master节点 驱逐pod 升级kubeadm 执行升级计算和应用升级 升级kubelet和kubectl 恢复驱逐pod 在升级Node节点 （所有node节点） 驱逐pod 升级kubeadm 执行升级节点 升级kubelet和kubectl 恢复驱逐pod Let's have a look at the current versions: ➜ k get node cluster3-controlplane1 Ready control-plane 96m v1.27.6 cluster3-node1 Ready <none> 91m v1.27.6 Control Plane Master Components First we should update the control plane components running on the master node, so we drain it: ➜ k drain cluster3-controlplane1 --ignore-daemonsets Next we ssh into it and check versions: ➜ ssh cluster3-controlplane1 ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# kubelet --version Kubernetes v1.27.6 ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# kubeadm version kubeadm version: &version.Info{Major:"1", Minor:"28", GitVersion:"v1.28.2", GitCommit:"89a4ea3e1e4ddd7f7572286090359983e0387b2f", GitTreeState:"clean", BuildDate:"2023-09-13T09:34:32Z", GoVersion:"go1.20.8", Compiler:"gc", Platform:"linux/amd64"} We see above that kubeadm is already installed in the required version. Else we would need to install it: # not necessary because here kubeadm is already installed in correct version apt-mark unhold kubeadm apt-mark hold kubectl kubelet apt install kubeadm=1.28.2-00 apt-mark hold kubeadm Check what kubeadm has available as an upgrade plan: ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# kubeadm upgrade plan [upgrade/config] Making sure the configuration is correct: [upgrade/config] Reading configuration from the cluster... [upgrade/config] FYI: You can look at this config file with 'kubectl -n kube-system get cm kubeadm-config -o yaml' [preflight] Running pre-flight checks. [upgrade] Running cluster health checks [upgrade] Fetching available versions to upgrade to [upgrade/versions] Cluster version: v1.27.6 [upgrade/versions] kubeadm version: v1.28.2 [upgrade/versions] Target version: v1.28.2 [upgrade/versions] Latest version in the v1.27 series: v1.27.6 Components that must be upgraded manually after you have upgraded the control plane with 'kubeadm upgrade apply': COMPONENT CURRENT TARGET kubelet 2 x v1.27.6 v1.28.2 Upgrade to the latest stable version: COMPONENT CURRENT TARGET kube-apiserver v1.27.6 v1.28.2 kube-controller-manager v1.27.6 v1.28.2 kube-scheduler v1.27.6 v1.28.2 kube-proxy v1.27.6 v1.28.2 CoreDNS v1.10.1 v1.10.1 etcd 3.5.7-0 3.5.9-0 You can now apply the upgrade by executing the following command: kubeadm upgrade apply v1.28.2 _____________________________________________________________________ The table below shows the current state of component configs as understood by this version of kubeadm. Configs that have a "yes" mark in the "MANUAL UPGRADE REQUIRED" column require manual config upgrade or resetting to kubeadm defaults before a successful upgrade can be performed. The version to manually upgrade to is denoted in the "PREFERRED VERSION" column. API GROUP CURRENT VERSION PREFERRED VERSION MANUAL UPGRADE REQUIRED kubeproxy.config.k8s.io v1alpha1 v1alpha1 no kubelet.config.k8s.io v1beta1 v1beta1 no _____________________________________________________________________ And we apply to the required version: ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# kubeadm upgrade apply v1.28.2 [upgrade/config] Making sure the configuration is correct: [upgrade/config] Reading configuration from the cluster... [upgrade/config] FYI: You can look at this config file with 'kubectl -n kube-system get cm kubeadm-config -o yaml' [preflight] Running pre-flight checks. [upgrade] Running cluster health checks [upgrade/version] You have chosen to change the cluster version to "v1.28.2" [upgrade/versions] Cluster version: v1.27.6 [upgrade/versions] kubeadm version: v1.28.2 [upgrade] Are you sure you want to proceed? [y/N]: y [upgrade/prepull] Pulling images required for setting up a Kubernetes cluster ... [bootstrap-token] Configured RBAC rules to allow certificate rotation for all node client certificates in the cluster [addons] Applied essential addon: CoreDNS [addons] Applied essential addon: kube-proxy [upgrade/successful] SUCCESS! Your cluster was upgraded to "v1.28.2". Enjoy! [upgrade/kubelet] Now that your control plane is upgraded, please proceed with upgrading your kubelets if you haven't already done so. Next we can check if our required version was installed correctly: ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# kubeadm upgrade plan [upgrade/config] Making sure the configuration is correct: [upgrade/config] Reading configuration from the cluster... [upgrade/config] FYI: You can look at this config file with 'kubectl -n kube-system get cm kubeadm-config -o yaml' [preflight] Running pre-flight checks. [upgrade] Running cluster health checks [upgrade] Fetching available versions to upgrade to [upgrade/versions] Cluster version: v1.28.2 [upgrade/versions] kubeadm version: v1.28.2 [upgrade/versions] Target version: v1.28.2 [upgrade/versions] Latest version in the v1.28 series: v1.28.2 Control Plane kubelet and kubectl Now we have to upgrade kubelet and kubectl: ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# apt update Hit:1 http://ppa.launchpad.net/rmescandon/yq/ubuntu focal InRelease Hit:3 http://us.archive.ubuntu.com/ubuntu bionic InRelease Hit:2 https://packages.cloud.google.com/apt kubernetes-xenial InRelease Reading package lists... Done Building dependency tree Reading state information... Done 2 packages can be upgraded. Run 'apt list --upgradable' to see them. ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# apt-mark unhold kubelet kubectl kubelet was already not hold. kubectl was already not hold. ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# apt install kubelet=1.28.2-00 kubectl=1.28.2-00 Reading package lists... Done Building dependency tree Reading state information... Done The following packages will be upgraded: kubectl kubelet 2 upgraded, 0 newly installed, 0 to remove and 0 not upgraded. Need to get 29.8 MB of archives. After this operation, 5,194 kB of additional disk space will be used. Get:1 https://packages.cloud.google.com/apt kubernetes-xenial/main amd64 kubectl amd64 1.28.2-00 [10.3 MB] Get:2 https://packages.cloud.google.com/apt kubernetes-xenial/main amd64 kubelet amd64 1.28.2-00 [19.5 MB] Fetched 29.8 MB in 2s (17.3 MB/s) (Reading database ... 112527 files and directories currently installed.) Preparing to unpack .../kubectl_1.28.2-00_amd64.deb ... Unpacking kubectl (1.28.2-00) over (1.27.6-00) ... Preparing to unpack .../kubelet_1.28.2-00_amd64.deb ... Unpacking kubelet (1.28.2-00) over (1.27.6-00) ... Setting up kubectl (1.28.2-00) ... Setting up kubelet (1.28.2-00) ... ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# apt-mark hold kubelet kubectl kubelet set on hold. kubectl set on hold. ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# service kubelet restart ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# service kubelet status ● kubelet.service - kubelet: The Kubernetes Node Agent Loaded: loaded (/lib/systemd/system/kubelet.service; enabled; vendor preset: enabled) Drop-In: /etc/systemd/system/kubelet.service.d └─10-kubeadm.conf Active: active (running) since Tue 2023-09-26 12:52:25 UTC; 3s ago Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/home/ Main PID: 34030 (kubelet) Tasks: 11 (limit: 1066) Memory: 34.4M CGroup: /system.slice/kubelet.service ... ➜ root@cluster3-controlplane1:~# kubectl get node NAME STATUS ROLES AGE VERSION cluster3-controlplane1 Ready,SchedulingDisabled control-plane 150m v1.28.2 cluster3-node1 Ready <none> 143m v1.27.6 Done, and uncordon: ➜ k uncordon cluster3-controlplane1 node/cluster3-controlplane1 uncordoned Data Plane ➜ k get node NAME STATUS ROLES AGE VERSION cluster3-controlplane1 Ready control-plane 150m v1.28.2 cluster3-node1 Ready <none> 143m v1.27.6 Our data plane consist of one single worker node, so let's update it. First thing is we should drain it: k drain cluster3-node1 --ignore-daemonsets Next we ssh into it and upgrade kubeadm to the wanted version, or check if already done: ➜ ssh cluster3-node1 ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# apt update Hit:1 http://ppa.launchpad.net/rmescandon/yq/ubuntu focal InRelease Hit:3 http://us.archive.ubuntu.com/ubuntu bionic InRelease Get:2 https://packages.cloud.google.com/apt kubernetes-xenial InRelease [8,993 B] Fetched 8,993 B in 1s (17.8 kB/s) Reading package lists... Done Building dependency tree Reading state information... Done 3 packages can be upgraded. Run 'apt list --upgradable' to see them. ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# apt-mark unhold kubeadm kubeadm was already not hold. ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# apt-mark hold kubectl kubelet kubectl set on hold. kubelet set on hold. ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# apt install kubeadm=1.28.2-00 Reading package lists... Done Building dependency tree Reading state information... Done The following packages will be upgraded: kubeadm 1 upgraded, 0 newly installed, 0 to remove and 2 not upgraded. Need to get 10.3 MB of archives. After this operation, 2,589 kB of additional disk space will be used. Get:1 https://packages.cloud.google.com/apt kubernetes-xenial/main amd64 kubeadm amd64 1.28.2-00 [10.3 MB] Fetched 10.3 MB in 1s (19.1 MB/s) (Reading database ... 112527 files and directories currently installed.) Preparing to unpack .../kubeadm_1.28.2-00_amd64.deb ... Unpacking kubeadm (1.28.2-00) over (1.27.6-00) ... Setting up kubeadm (1.28.2-00) ... ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# apt-mark hold kubeadm kubeadm set on hold. ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# kubeadm upgrade node [upgrade] Reading configuration from the cluster... [upgrade] FYI: You can look at this config file with 'kubectl -n kube-system get cm kubeadm-config -o yaml' [preflight] Running pre-flight checks [preflight] Skipping prepull. Not a control plane node. [upgrade] Skipping phase. Not a control plane node. [upgrade] Backing up kubelet config file to /etc/kubernetes/tmp/kubeadm-kubelet-config1123040998/config.yaml [kubelet-start] Writing kubelet configuration to file "/var/lib/kubelet/config.yaml" [upgrade] The configuration for this node was successfully updated! [upgrade] Now you should go ahead and upgrade the kubelet package using your package manager. Now we follow that kubeadm told us in the last line and upgrade kubelet (and kubectl): ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# apt-mark unhold kubectl kubelet Canceled hold on kubectl. Canceled hold on kubelet. ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# apt install kubelet=1.28.2-00 kubectl=1.28.2-00 Reading package lists... Done Building dependency tree Reading state information... Done The following packages will be upgraded: kubectl kubelet 2 upgraded, 0 newly installed, 0 to remove and 0 not upgraded. Need to get 29.8 MB of archives. After this operation, 5,194 kB of additional disk space will be used. Get:1 https://packages.cloud.google.com/apt kubernetes-xenial/main amd64 kubectl amd64 1.28.2-00 [10.3 MB] Get:2 https://packages.cloud.google.com/apt kubernetes-xenial/main amd64 kubelet amd64 1.28.2-00 [19.5 MB] Fetched 29.8 MB in 2s (14.5 MB/s) (Reading database ... 112527 files and directories currently installed.) Preparing to unpack .../kubectl_1.28.2-00_amd64.deb ... Unpacking kubectl (1.28.2-00) over (1.27.6-00) ... Preparing to unpack .../kubelet_1.28.2-00_amd64.deb ... Unpacking kubelet (1.28.2-00) over (1.27.6-00) ... Setting up kubectl (1.28.2-00) ... Setting up kubelet (1.28.2-00) ... ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# service kubelet restart ➜ root@cluster3-node1:~# service kubelet status ● kubelet.service - kubelet: The Kubernetes Node Agent Loaded: loaded (/lib/systemd/system/kubelet.service; enabled; vendor preset: enabled) Drop-In: /etc/systemd/system/kubelet.service.d └─10-kubeadm.conf Active: active (running) since Tue 2023-09-26 12:56:19 UTC; 4s ago Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/home/ Main PID: 34075 (kubelet) Tasks: 9 (limit: 1066) Memory: 26.4M CGroup: /system.slice/kubelet.service ... Looking good, what does the node status say? ➜ k get node NAME STATUS ROLES AGE VERSION cluster3-controlplane1 Ready control-plane 154m v1.28.2 cluster3-node1 Ready,SchedulingDisabled <none> 147m v1.28.2 Beautiful, let's make it schedulable again: ➜ k uncordon cluster3-node1 node/cluster3-node1 uncordoned ➜ k get node NAME STATUS ROLES AGE VERSION cluster3-controlplane1 Ready control-plane 154m v1.28.2 cluster3-node1 Ready <none> 147m v1.28.2 We're up to date. 第二十一题： Image Vulnerability Scanning 问题 Task weight: 2% (can be solved in any kubectl context) The Vulnerability Scanner trivy is installed on your main terminal. Use it to scan the following images for known CVEs: nginx:1.16.1-alpine k8s.gcr.io/kube-apiserver:v1.18.0 k8s.gcr.io/kube-controller-manager:v1.18.0 docker.io/weaveworks/weave-kube:2.7.0 Write all images that don't contain the vulnerabilities `CVE-2020-10878 orCVE-2020-1967into/opt/course/21/good-images`. 解答 The tool trivy is very simple to use, it compares images against public databases. ➜ trivy nginx:1.16.1-alpine 2020-10-09T20:59:39.198Z INFO Need to update DB 2020-10-09T20:59:39.198Z INFO Downloading DB... 18.81 MiB / 18.81 MiB [------------------------------------- 2020-10-09T20:59:45.499Z INFO Detecting Alpine vulnerabilities... nginx:1.16.1-alpine (alpine 3.10.4) =================================== Total: 7 (UNKNOWN: 0, LOW: 0, MEDIUM: 7, HIGH: 0, CRITICAL: 0) +---------------+------------------+----------+------------------- | LIBRARY | VULNERABILITY ID | SEVERITY | INSTALLED VERSION +---------------+------------------+----------+------------------- | libcrypto1.1 | CVE-2020-1967 | MEDIUM | 1.1.1d-r2 ... To solve the task we can run: ➜ trivy nginx:1.16.1-alpine | grep -E 'CVE-2020-10878|CVE-2020-1967' | libcrypto1.1 | CVE-2020-1967 | MEDIUM | libssl1.1 | CVE-2020-1967 | ➜ trivy k8s.gcr.io/kube-apiserver:v1.18.0 | grep -E 'CVE-2020-10878|CVE-2020-1967' | perl-base | CVE-2020-10878 | HIGH ➜ trivy k8s.gcr.io/kube-controller-manager:v1.18.0 | grep -E 'CVE-2020-10878|CVE-2020-1967' | perl-base | CVE-2020-10878 | HIGH ➜ trivy docker.io/weaveworks/weave-kube:2.7.0 | grep -E 'CVE-2020-10878|CVE-2020-1967' ➜ The only image without the any of the two CVEs is docker.io/weaveworks/weave-kube:2.7.0, hence our answer will be: #/opt/course/21/good-images docker.io/weaveworks/weave-kube:2.7.0 第二十二题： Manual Static Security Analysis 问题 Task weight: 3% (can be solved in any kubectl context) The Release Engineering Team has shared some YAML manifests and Dockerfiles with you to review. The files are located under /opt/course/22/files. As a container security expert, you are asked to perform a manual static analysis and find out possible security issues with respect to unwanted credential exposure. Running processes as root is of no concern in this task. Write the filenames which have issues into `/opt/course/22/security-issues. NOTE: In the Dockerfile and YAML manifests, assume that the referred files, folders, secrets and volume mounts are present. Disregard syntax or logic errors. 解答 We check location /opt/course/22/files and list the files. ➜ ls -la /opt/course/22/files total 48 drwxr-xr-x 2 k8s k8s 4096 Sep 16 19:08 . drwxr-xr-x 3 k8s k8s 4096 Sep 16 19:08 .. -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 692 Sep 16 19:08 Dockerfile-go -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 897 Sep 16 19:08 Dockerfile-mysql -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 743 Sep 16 19:08 Dockerfile-py -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 341 Sep 16 19:08 deployment-nginx.yaml -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 705 Sep 16 19:08 deployment-redis.yaml -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 392 Sep 16 19:08 pod-nginx.yaml -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 228 Sep 16 19:08 pv-manual.yaml -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 188 Sep 16 19:08 pvc-manual.yaml -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 211 Sep 16 19:08 sc-local.yaml -rw-r--r-- 1 k8s k8s 902 Sep 16 19:08 statefulset-nginx.yaml We have 3 Dockerfiles and 7 Kubernetes Resource YAML manifests. Next we should go over each to find security issues with the way credentials have been used. NOTE: You should be comfortable with Docker Best Practices and the Kubernetes Configuration Best Practices. While navigating through the files we might notice: Number 1 File Dockerfile-mysql might look innocent on first look. It copies a file secret-token over, uses it and deletes it afterwards. But because of the way Docker works, every RUN, COPY and ADD command creates a new layer and every layer is persistet in the image. This means even if the file secret-token get's deleted in layer Z, it's still included with the image in layer X and Y. In this case it would be better to use for example variables passed to Docker. # /opt/course/22/files/Dockerfile-mysql FROM ubuntu # Add MySQL configuration COPY my.cnf /etc/mysql/conf.d/my.cnf COPY mysqld_charset.cnf /etc/mysql/conf.d/mysqld_charset.cnf RUN apt-get update && \ apt-get -yq install mysql-server-5.6 && # Add MySQL scripts COPY import_sql.sh /import_sql.sh COPY run.sh /run.sh # Configure credentials COPY secret-token . # LAYER X RUN /etc/register.sh ./secret-token # LAYER Y RUN rm ./secret-token # delete secret token again # LATER Z EXPOSE 3306 CMD ["/run.sh"] So we do: echo Dockerfile-mysql >> /opt/course/22/security-issues Number 2 The file deployment-redis.yaml is fetching credentials from a Secret named mysecret and writes these into environment variables. So far so good, but in the command of the container it's echoing these which can be directly read by any user having access to the logs. # /opt/course/22/files/deployment-redis.yaml apiVersion: apps/v1 kind: Deployment metadata: name: nginx-deployment labels: app: nginx spec: replicas: 3 selector: matchLabels: app: nginx template: metadata: labels: app: nginx spec: containers: - name: mycontainer image: redis command: ["/bin/sh"] args: - "-c" - "echo $SECRET_USERNAME && echo $SECRET_PASSWORD && docker-entrypoint.sh" # NOT GOOD env: - name: SECRET_USERNAME valueFrom: secretKeyRef: name: mysecret key: username - name: SECRET_PASSWORD valueFrom: secretKeyRef: name: mysecret key: password Credentials in logs is never a good idea, hence we do: echo deployment-redis.yaml >> /opt/course/22/security-issues Number 3 In file statefulset-nginx.yaml, the password is directly exposed in the environment variable definition of the container. # /opt/course/22/files/statefulset-nginx.yaml ... apiVersion: apps/v1 kind: StatefulSet metadata: name: web spec: serviceName: "nginx" replicas: 2 selector: matchLabels: app: nginx template: metadata: labels: app: nginx spec: containers: - name: nginx image: k8s.gcr.io/nginx-slim:0.8 env: - name: Username value: Administrator - name: Password value: MyDiReCtP@sSw0rd # NOT GOOD ports: - containerPort: 80 name: web .. This should better be injected via a Secret. So we do: echo statefulset-nginx.yaml >> /opt/course/22/security-issues ➜ cat /opt/course/22/security-issues Dockerfile-mysql deployment-redis.yaml statefulset-nginx.yaml

Ubuntu22.04修改网络IP地址 步骤 1: 找到并编辑 Netplan 配置文件 步骤 2: 修改配置文件 步骤 3: 应用配置 注意 线面是具体的示例来说明如何使用命令行在 Ubuntu 22.04 上配置静态 IP 地址。假设您想为您的网络接口（例如 eth0）配置以下静态网络设置： 静态 IP 地址: 192.168.1.100 子网掩码: 255.255.255.0（在 CIDR 表示法中为 /24） 网关: 192.168.1.1 DNS 服务器: 8.8.8.8 和 8.8.4.4（Google 公共 DNS） 步骤 1: 找到并编辑 Netplan 配置文件 打开终端。 查找 Netplan 的配置文件。这个文件通常位于 /etc/netplan/ 目录中。您可以使用 ls 命令列出目录内容： ls /etc/netplan/ 假设配置文件是 01-netcfg.yaml（文件名可能不同 或 00-installer-config.yaml），使用文本编辑器编辑该文件： sudo vim /etc/netplan/01-netcfg.yaml 步骤 2: 修改配置文件 在 Netplan 配置文件中，您可能会看到像这样的配置： network: version: 2 renderer: networkd ethernets: eth0: dhcp4: true 修改这个配置以设置静态 IP 地址： network: version: 2 renderer: networkd ethernets: eth0: dhcp4: false addresses: - 192.168.1.100/24 gateway4: 192.168.1.1 nameservers: - addresses: [8.8.8.8, 8.8.4.4] 步骤 3: 应用配置 保存文件并退出编辑器。 应用新的 Netplan 配置： sudo netplan apply 检查新的 IP 配置是否已应用： ip addr show eth0 注意 请确保在 /24（对应于子网掩码 255.255.255.0）中正确设置您的网络 CIDR。 根据您的网络环境，接口名称（如 eth0）可能会有所不同。请使用 ip link 命令查看可用的网络接口，并相应地替换配置文件中的接口名称。 编辑配置文件时要非常小心，因为错误的配置可能导致网络问题。在进行更改之前，建议备份现有的配置文件。

Kubernetes安装metrics-server服务（指标采集服务） Kubernetes安装metrics-server服务（指标采集服务） 创建文件metrics-server.yaml 安装 Kubernetes安装metrics-server服务（指标采集服务） 创建文件metrics-server.yaml cat << EOF > metrics-server.yaml apiVersion: v1 kind: ServiceAccount metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server name: metrics-server namespace: kube-system --- apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1 kind: ClusterRole metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-admin: "true" rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-edit: "true" rbac.authorization.k8s.io/aggregate-to-view: "true" name: system:aggregated-metrics-reader rules: - apiGroups: - metrics.k8s.io resources: - pods - nodes verbs: - get - list - watch --- apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1 kind: ClusterRole metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server name: system:metrics-server rules: - apiGroups: - "" resources: - nodes/metrics verbs: - get - apiGroups: - "" resources: - pods - nodes verbs: - get - list - watch --- apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1 kind: RoleBinding metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server name: metrics-server-auth-reader namespace: kube-system roleRef: apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io kind: Role name: extension-apiserver-authentication-reader subjects: - kind: ServiceAccount name: metrics-server namespace: kube-system --- apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1 kind: ClusterRoleBinding metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server name: metrics-server:system:auth-delegator roleRef: apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io kind: ClusterRole name: system:auth-delegator subjects: - kind: ServiceAccount name: metrics-server namespace: kube-system --- apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1 kind: ClusterRoleBinding metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server name: system:metrics-server roleRef: apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io kind: ClusterRole name: system:metrics-server subjects: - kind: ServiceAccount name: metrics-server namespace: kube-system --- apiVersion: v1 kind: Service metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server name: metrics-server namespace: kube-system spec: ports: - name: https port: 443 protocol: TCP targetPort: https selector: k8s-app: metrics-server --- apiVersion: apps/v1 kind: Deployment metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server name: metrics-server namespace: kube-system spec: selector: matchLabels: k8s-app: metrics-server strategy: rollingUpdate: maxUnavailable: 0 template: metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server spec: containers: - args: - --cert-dir=/tmp - --secure-port=4443 - --kubelet-preferred-address-types=InternalIP,ExternalIP,Hostname - --kubelet-use-node-status-port - --metric-resolution=15s image: registry.cn-hangzhou.aliyuncs.com/google_containers/metrics-server:v0.6.3 imagePullPolicy: IfNotPresent livenessProbe: failureThreshold: 3 httpGet: path: /livez port: https scheme: HTTPS periodSeconds: 10 name: metrics-server ports: - containerPort: 4443 name: https protocol: TCP readinessProbe: failureThreshold: 3 httpGet: path: /readyz port: https scheme: HTTPS initialDelaySeconds: 20 periodSeconds: 10 resources: requests: cpu: 100m memory: 200Mi securityContext: allowPrivilegeEscalation: false readOnlyRootFilesystem: true runAsNonRoot: true runAsUser: 1000 volumeMounts: - mountPath: /tmp name: tmp-dir nodeSelector: kubernetes.io/os: linux priorityClassName: system-cluster-critical serviceAccountName: metrics-server volumes: - emptyDir: {} name: tmp-dir --- apiVersion: apiregistration.k8s.io/v1 kind: APIService metadata: labels: k8s-app: metrics-server name: v1beta1.metrics.k8s.io spec: group: metrics.k8s.io groupPriorityMinimum: 100 insecureSkipTLSVerify: true service: name: metrics-server namespace: kube-system version: v1beta1 versionPriority: 100 EOF 安装 kubectl apply -f metrics-server.yaml